Begrepp Flashcards
(212 cards)
1
Q
Affordance
A
An opportunity or threat provided by a situation.
2
Q
Aggression
A
Behavior intended to injure another.
3
Q
Altruist
A
Someone oriented toward bringing the group benefits, even if it means personal sacrifice.
4
Q
Anchoring and adjustment heuristic
A
A mental shortcut through which people begin with a rough estimation as a starting point and then adjust this estimate to take into account unique characteristics of the present situation.
5
Q
Androgynous
A
Demonstrating a combination of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s behaviors.
6
Q
Anxious/ambivalent attachment style
A
Attachments marked by fear of abandonment and the feeling that one’s needs are not being met.
7
Q
Arousal/cost–reward model
A
The view that observers of a victim’s suffering will want to help in order to relieve their own personal distress.
8
Q
Assertiveness
A
Behavior intended to express dominance or confidence.
9
Q
Attribution theories
A
Theories designed to explain how people determine the causes of behavior.
10
Q
Augmenting principle
A
The judgmental rule that states that if an event occurs despite the presence of strong opposing forces, we should give more weight to those possible causes that lead toward the event.
11
Q
Authoritarianism
A
The tendency to submit to those having greater authority and to denigrate those having less authority.
12
Q
Authority ranking
A
A form of exchange in which goods are divided according to a person’s status in the group.
13
Q
Availability heuristic
A
A mental shortcut people use to estimate the likelihood of an event by the ease with which instances of that event come to mind.
14
Q
Avoidant attachment style
A
Attachments marked by defensive detachment from the other.
15
Q
Bait-and-switch technique
A
Gaining a commitment to an arrangement, then making the arrangement unavailable or unappealing and offering a more costly arrangement.
16
Q
Balance theory
A
Heider’s theory that people prefer harmony and consistency in their views of the world.
17
Q
Basking in reflected glory
A
The process of associating ourselves with successful, high-status others or events.
18
Q
Bystander effect
A
The tendency of a bystander to be less likely to help in an emergency if there are other onlookers present.
19
Q
Catharsis
A
Discharge of aggressive impulses.
20
Q
Central route to persuasion
A
The way people are persuaded when they focus on the quality of the arguments in a message.
21
Q
Chronically accessible
A
The state of being easily activated, or primed, for use.
22
Q
Cognitive dissonance
A
The unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one’s important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors.
23
Q
Cognitive heuristic
A
A mental shortcut used to make a judgment.
24
Q
Cognitive response model
A
A theory that locates the most direct cause of persuasion in the self-talk of the persuasion target.
25
Cognitive-neoassociation theory
Theory that any unpleasant situation triggers a complex chain of internal events, including negative emotions and negative thoughts. Depending on other cues in the situation (such as weapons), these negative feelings will be expressed as either aggression or flight.
26
Cohesiveness
The strength of the bonds among group members.
27
Collectivistic culture
A culture that socializes its members to think of themselves in terms of their relationships and as members of the larger social group, and to prioritize the concerns of their relationship partners and groups before their own.
28
Command-and-control policy
A prescriptive legal regulation that uses police power to punish violators.
29
Companionate love
Affection and tenderness felt for those whose lives are entwined with our own.
30
Competence motivation
The desire to perform effectively.
31
Compliance
Behavior change that occurs as a result of a direct request.
32
Conflict spiral view
The belief that escalations of international threat lead an opponent to feel more threatened and that leaders should thus demonstrate peaceful intentions to reduce the opponent’s own defensive hostilities.
33
Conformity
Behavior change designed to match the actions of others.
34
Confound
A variable that systematically changes along with the independent variable, potentially leading to a mistaken conclusion about the effect of the independent variable.
35
Consistency principle
The principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other.
36
Correspondence bias (fundamental attribution error)
The tendency for observers to overe stimate the causal influence of personality factors on behavior and to underestimate the causal role of situational influences.
37
Correspondent inference theory
The theory that proposes that people determine whether a behavior corresponds to an actor’s internal disposition by asking whether (1) the behavior was intended, (2) the behavior’s consequences were foreseeable, (3) the behavior was freely chosen, and (4) the behavior occurred despite countervailing forces.
38
Counterattitudinal action
A behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude.
39
Counterfactual thinking
The process of imagining alternative, “might have been” versions of actual events.
40
Covariation model
The theory that proposes that people determine the cause of an actor’s behavior by assessing whether other people act in similar ways (consensus), the actor behaves similarly in similar situations (distinctiveness), and the actor behaves similarly across time in the same situation (consistency).
41
Weapons effect
The tendency for weapons, such as guns, to enhance aggressive thoughts, feelings, and actions.
42
Voluntarist policy
An appeal to people’s intrinsic sense of social responsibility.
43
Upward social comparison
The process of comparing ourselves with those who are better off.
44
Ultimate explanation
A focus on background or historical causes.
45
Type A behavior pattern
A group of personality characteristics, including time-urgency and competitiveness, that is associated with higher risk for coronary disease.
46
Two-factor theory of love
The theory that love consists of general arousal (factor 1), which is attributed to the presence of an attractive person and labeled as love (factor 2).
47
Triangulation
Technique of examining the same problem using different research methods, each having different biases.
48
Transformational leadership
Leader - ship that changes the motivations, outlooks, and behaviors of followers, enabling the group to reach its goals better.
49
Transactive memory
A group memory system made up of (1) the knowledge held by individual group members and (2) a communication network for sharing this knowledge among the members.
50
Tit-for-tat strategy
A negotiating tactic in which the individual responds to competitiveness with competitiveness and to cooperation with cooperation.
51
Time-series analysis
A method in which two or more recurring events are examined for linkages over time.
52
Theory of planned behavior
A theory stating that the best predictor of a behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced by one’s attitude toward the specific behavior, the subjective norms regarding the behavior, and one’s perceived control over the behavior.
53
Theory
Scientific explanation that connects and organizes existing observations and suggests fruitful paths for future research
54
That’s-not-all technique
A technique that increases compliance by “sweetening” an offer with additional benefits.
55
Stereotyping
The process of categorizing an individual as a member of a particular group and then inferring that he or she possesses the characteristics generally held by members of that group.
56
Stereotype threat
The fear that one might confirm the negative stereotypes held by others about one’s group.
57
Stereotype
Generalized belief about members of social groups.
58
Status hierarchy
A ranking of group members by their power and influence over other members.
59
Sociosexual orientation
Individual differences in the tendency to prefer either unrestricted sex (without the necessity of love) or restricted sex (only in the context of a long-term, loving relationship).
60
Sociocultural perspective
The theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in influences from larger social groups.
61
Socialization
The process whereby a culture teaches its members about its beliefs, customs, habits, and language.
62
Social validation
An interpersonal way to locate and validate the correct choice.
63
Social trap
A situation in which individuals or groups are drawn toward immediate rewards that later prove to have unpleasant or lethal consequences.
64
Social responsibility norm
The societal rule that people should help those who need them to help.
65
Social psychology
The scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people.
66
Social loafing
Reducing one’s personal efforts when in a group.
67
Social learning theory
Theory that aggression is learned through direct reward or by watching others being rewarded for aggressiveness.
68
Social learning perspective
A theoretical viewpoint that focuses on past learning experiences as determinants of a person’s social behaviors.
69
Social influence
A change in overt behavior caused by real or imagined pressure from others.
70
Social identity
The beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging.
71
Social facilitation
The process through which the presence of others increases the likelihood of dominant responses, leading to better performance on well-mastered tasks and worse performance on unmastered tasks.
72
Social exchange
The trading of benefits within relationships.
73
Social dominance orientation
The extent to which a person desires that his or her own group dominate other groups and be socially and materially superior to them.
74
Social dilemma
A situation in which an individual profits from selfishness unless everyone chooses the selfish alternative, in which case the whole group loses.
75
Social desirability bias
The tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable.
76
Social comparison
The process through which people come to know themselves by comparing their abilities, attitudes, and beliefs with those of others.
77
Social cognitive perspective
A theoretical viewpoint that focuses on the mental processes involved in paying attention to, interpreting, and remembering social experiences.
78
Social cognition
The process of thinking about and making sense of oneself and others.
79
Social capital
Assets that can be drawn from one’s network of personal relationships.
80
Social anxiety
The fear people experience while doubting that they’ll be able to create a desired impression.
81
Culture of honor
A set of societal norms whose central idea is that people (particularly men) should be ready to defend their honor with violent retaliation if necessary.
82
Cutting off reflected failure
The process of distancing ourselves from unsuccessful, low-status others or events.
83
Debriefing
A discussion of procedures, hypotheses, and participant reactions at the completion of the study.
84
Decision/commitment
Factor on love scales composed of items tapping decision that one is in love with and committed to another.
85
Defensive attributional style
A tendency to notice threats and interpret other people’s behavior as intended to do one harm.
86
Deindividuation
The process of losing one’s sense of personal identity, which makes it easier to behave in ways inconsistent with one’s normal values.
87
Deterrence view
The belief that signs of weakness will be exploited by the opponent and that leaders need to show their willingness to use military force.
87
Demand characteristic
Cue that makes participants aware of how the experimenter expects them to behave.
88
Descriptive norm
A norm that defines what is commonly done in a situation.
89
Differential parental investment
The principle that animals making higher investment in their offspring (female as compared to male mammals, for instance) will be more careful in choosing mates.
90
Diffusion of responsibility
The tendency for each group member to dilute personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members.
91
Direct aggression
Behavior intended to hurt someone to his or her face.
92
Discounting principle
The judgmental rule that states that as the number of possible causes for an event increases, our confidence that any particular cause is the true one should decrease.
93
Discrimination
Behaviors directed toward people on the basis of their group membership.
94
Disidentify
To reduce in one’s mind the relevance of a particular domain (e.g., academic achievement) to one’s selfesteem.
95
Displacement
Indirect expression of an aggressive impulse away from the person or animal that elicited it.
96
Dispositional inference
The judgment that a person’s behavior has been caused by an aspect of that person’s personality.
97
Disrupt-then-reframe technique
A tactic that operates to increase compliance by disrupting one’s initial, resistance-laden view of a request and quickly reframing the request in more favorable terms.
98
Domain-general model
A model that attempts to explain a wide range of different behaviors according to a simple general rule (such as: do it if it’s rewarding).
99
Domain-specific model
A model that presumes that the governing principles vary from one domain of behavior to another (such as friendship versus romance versus parent–child relationships).
100
Door-in-the-face technique
A technique that increases compliance by beginning with a large favor likely to be rejected and then retreating to a more moderate favor.
101
Downward social comparison
The process of comparing ourselves with those who are less well off.
102
Dramaturgical perspective
The perspective that much of social interaction can be thought of as a play, with actors, performances, settings, scripts, props, roles, and so forth.
103
Dual process model of persuasion
A model that accounts for the two basic ways that attitude change occurs— with and without much thought.
104
Dynamical system
A system (e.g., a group) made up of many interacting elements (e.g., people) that changes and evolves over time.
105
Effect/danger ratio
Assessment of the likely beneficial effect of aggressiveness balanced against the likely dangers.
106
Elaboration likelihood model
A model of persuasive communication that holds that there are two routes to attitude change—the central route and the peripheral route.
107
Emotional aggression
Hurtful behavior that stems from angry feelings.
108
Emotions
Relatively intense feelings characterized by physiological arousal and complex cognitions.
109
Empathic concern
Compassionate feelings caused by taking the perspective of a needy other.
110
Empathy–altruism hypothesis
The presumption that when one empathizes with the plight of another, one will want to help that other for purely altruistic reasons.
111
Equality matching
A form of exchange in which each person gets the same as the others.
112
Equity
A state of affairs in which one person’s benefits and costs from a relationship are proportional to the benefits and costs incurred by his or her partner.
113
Equity rule
Each person’s benefits and costs in a social relationship should be matched to the benefits and costs of the other.
114
Erotomania
A disorder involving the fixed (but incorrect) belief that one is loved by another, which persists in the face of strong evidence to the contrary.
115
Evolutionary perspective
A theoretical viewpoint that searches for the causes of social behavior in the physical and psychological predispositions that helped our ancestors survive and reproduce.
116
Excitation-transfer theory
The theory that anger is physiologically similar to other emotional states and that any form of emotional arousal can enhance aggressive responses.
117
Experience sampling method
An observational technique in which subjects fill out frequent descriptions of who they are with and what is going on.
118
Exemplar
A mental representation of a specific episode, event, or individual.
119
Factor analysis
A statistical technique for sorting test items or behaviors into conceptually similar groupings.
119
Expert power
The capacity to influence that flows from one’s presumed wisdom or knowledge.
120
Foot-in-the door technique
A technique that increases compliance with a large request by first getting compliance with a smaller, related request.
120
False consensus effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us.
121
Frustration–aggression hypothesis (original)
The theory that aggression is an automatic response to any blocking of goal-directed behavior.
122
Frustration–aggression hypothesis (reformulated)
The theory that any unpleasant stimulation will lead to emotional aggression to the extent that it generates unpleasant feelings.
123
GRIT (Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction)
A strategy for breaking conflict spirals by publicly challenging the opponent to match de-escalations.
124
Group
Minimally, groups are two or more individuals who influence each other. Collections of individuals become increasingly “grouplike,” however, when their members are interdependent and share a common identity, and when they possess structure.
125
Group polarization
Occurs when group discussion leads members to make decisions that are more extremely on the side of the issue that the group initially favored.
126
Groupthink
A style of group decision making characterized by a greater desire among members to get along and agree with one another than to generate and critically evaluate alternative viewpoints and positions.
127
Health psychology
The study of behavioral and psychological factors that affect illness.
128
Impression motivation
The motivation to achieve approval by making a good impression on others.
129
Inclusive fitness
The survival of one’s genes in one’s own offspring and in any relatives one helps.
130
Indirect aggression
Behavior intended to hurt someone without face-to-face confrontation.
131
Individualist
Someone oriented toward maximizing personal gains, without regard to the rest of the group.
132
Individualistic culture
A culture that socializes its members to think of themselves as individuals and to give priority to their personal goals.
133
Ingratiation
An attempt to get others to like us.
134
Ingroup bias
The tendency to benefit members of one’s own groups over members of other groups.
135
Injunctive norm
A norm that describes what is commonly approved or disapproved in a situation.
136
Inoculation procedure
A technique for increasing individuals’ resistance to a strong argument by first giving them weak, easily defeated versions of it.
137
Instrumental aggression
Hurting another to accomplish some other (nonaggressive) goal.
138
Integrative complexity
The extent to which a person demonstrates simplified “black-and-white” categorical thinking, as opposed to acknowledgment of all sides of an issue.
139
Internal validity
The extent to which an experiment allows confident statements about cause and effect.
140
Intimacy
Factor on love scales composed of items tapping feelings of close bonding with another.
141
Labeling technique
Assigning a label to an individual and then requesting a favor that is consistent with the label.
142
Low-ball technique
Gaining a commitment to an arrangement and then raising the cost of carrying out the arrangement.
143
Market pricing
A form of exchange in which everyone gets out in proportion to what they put in.
144
Market-based policy
An offer of rewards to those who reduce their socially harmful behaviors.
145
Mere exposure effect
The tendency to feel positively toward people, places, or things we have seen frequently.
146
Minimal intergroup paradigm
An experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore the foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination.
147
Minority influence
Occurs when opinion minorities persuade others of their views.
148
Mood management hypothesis
The idea that people use helping tactically to manage their moods.
149
Moods
Relatively long-lasting feelings that are diffuse and not directed toward particular targets.
150
Multiple audience dilemma
A situation in which a person needs to present different images to different audiences, often at the same time.
151
Naturalistic observation
Recording everyday behaviors as they unfold in their natural settings.
152
Need for cognition
The tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberative thought.
152
Need to belong
The human need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships.
152
Need-based rule
Each person in a social relationship provides benefits as the other needs them, without keeping account of individual costs and benefits.
152
Norm of reciprocity
The norm that requires that we repay others with the form of behavior they have given us.
152
Nonreactive measurement
Measurement that does not change a subject’s responses while recording them.
152
Obedience
Compliance that occurs in response to a directive from an authority figure.
152
Observer bias
Error introduced into measurement when an observer overemphasizes behaviors he or she expects to find and fails to notice behaviors he or she does not expect.
152
Participant observation
A research approach in which the researcher infiltrates the setting to be studied and observes its workings from within.
152
Passion
Factor on love scales composed of items tapping romantic attraction and sexual desire.
152
Perceived outgroup homogeneity
The phenomenon of overestimating the extent to which members within other groups are similar to each other.
153
Perceptual dilemma
The combination of a social dilemma and an outgroup bias, in which each side in a conflict believes that it is best for both sides to cooperate, while simultaneously believing that the other side would prefer that “we” cooperated while “they” defected.
153
Personal norms
The internalized beliefs and values that combine to form a person’s inner standards for behavior.
153
Peripheral route to persuasion
The way people are persuaded when they focus on factors other than the quality of the arguments in a message, such as the number of arguments.
153
Personal commitment
Anything that connects an individual’s identity more closely to a position or course of action.
154
Sliding reinforcer
A stimulus that brings rewards when used in small doses, punishments when used in large doses.
155
Sexual selection
A form of natural selection favoring characteristics that assist animals in attracting mates or in competing with members of their own sex.
156
Self-serving bias
The tendency to take personal credit for our successes and to blame external factors for our failures.
157
Self-regulation
The process through which people select, monitor, and adjust their strategies in an attempt to reach their goals.
158
Self-promotion
An attempt to get others to see us as competent.
159
Self-presentation
The process through which we try to control the impressions people form of us; synonymous with impression management
160
Self-perception process
The process through which people observe their own behavior to infer internal characteristics such as traits, abilities, and attitudes.
161
Self-monitoring
The tendency to be chronically concerned with one’s public image and to adjust one’s actions to fit the needs of the current situation.
162
Self-handicapping
The behavior of withdrawing effort or creating obstacles to one’s future successes
163
Self-fulfilling prophecy
When an initially inaccurate expectation leads to actions that cause the expectation to come true.
164
Self-esteem
Our attitude toward ourselves.
165
Self-disclosure
The sharing of intimate information about oneself.
166
Self-concept
A mental representation capturing our views and beliefs about ourselves.
167
Secure base
Comfort provided by an attachment figure, which allows the person to venture forth more confidently to explore the environment.
168
Secure attachment style
Attachments marked by trust that the other person will continue to provide love and support.
169
Scripted situation
A situation in which certain events are expected to occur in a particular sequence.
170
Schema
A mental representation capturing the general characteristics of a particular class of episodes, events, or individuals.
171
Scapegoating
The process of blaming members of other groups for one’s frustrations and failures.
172
Role
Expectation held by the group for how members in particular positions ought to behave.
173
Representativeness heuristic
A mental shortcut people use to classify something as belonging to a certain category to the extent that it is similar to a typical case from that category.
174
Relative deprivation
The feeling that one has less than the others to whom one compares oneself.
175
Representative sample
A group of respondents having characteristics that match those of the larger population the researcher wants to describe.
176
Replenishing resource management dilemma
A situation in which group members share a renewable resource that will continue to produce benefits if group members do not overharvest it but in which any single individual profits from harvesting as much as possible.
177
Reinforcement-affect model
The theory that we like people with whom we associate positive feelings and dislike those with whom we associate negative feelings.
178
Reflected appraisal process
The process through which people come to know themselves by observing or imagining how others view them.
179
Reciprocal aid
Helping that occurs in return for prior help.
180
Realistic group conflict theory
The proposal that intergroup conflict, and negative prejudices and stereotypes, emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources.
181
Reactance theory
Brehm’s theory that we react against threats to our freedoms by reasserting those freedoms, often by doing the opposite of what we are being pressured to do.
182
Pure (true) altruism
Action intended solely to benefit another.
183
Public self-consciousness
The tendency to have a chronic awareness of oneself as being in the public eye.
184
Public goods dilemma
A situation in which (1) the whole group can benefit if some of the individuals give something for the common good but (2) individuals profit from “free riding” if enough others contribute.
185
Psychopath
Individual characterized by impulsivity, irresponsibility, low empathy, grandiose self-worth, and lack of sensitivity to punishment. Such individuals are inclined toward acting violently for personal gain.
186
Proximity-attraction principle
The tendency to become friends with those who live or work nearby.
187
Proximate explanation
A focus on relatively immediate causes.
188
Prosocial behavior
Action intended to benefit another.
189
Priming
The process of activating knowledge or goals, of making them ready for use.
190
Prejudice
A generalized attitude toward members of a social group.
191
Postdecisional dissonance
The conflict one feels about a decision that could possibly be wrong.
192
Polygyny
Marital arrangement involving one man and more than one wife.
193
Polyandry
Marital arrangement involving one woman and more than one husband.
194
Person
Features or characteristics that individuals carry into social situations.
195
Person–situation fit
The extent to which a person and a situation are compatible.
196
Persuasion
Change in a private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message.
197
Pluralistic ignorance
The mistaken impression on the part of group members that, because no one else is acting concerned, there is no cause for alarm.
