Chapter 0 Flashcards
(211 cards)
1
Q
Scientific method
A
The process by which researchers research questions, hypotheses, produce observations, results, and conclusions
2
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Theory
A
A well sunstantiated explanation for a natural phenomenon that is broader than a sing hypothesis
3
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Hypothesis
A
A proposed explanation for an observation that are educated guesses to be tested
4
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Operationalization
A
The process to determine how things will be measured
5
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Independent variable
A
AKA the factor, explanatory variable, predictor accounts for the changes in the dependent variable
6
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Dependent variable
A
The factor being measured
7
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Confounding variable
A
Unmeasured variables that may affect the dependent variable
8
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Categorical variable
A
Variables that are categories
9
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Quantitative variable
A
Variables that are numbers
10
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Nominal
A
Names something but has no meaningful order
11
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Ordinal
A
Classified data into ordered categories but does not convey the degree or magnitude difference between categories
12
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Ratio
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Thought of as a number and has a meaningful zero
13
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Interval
A
Measures the intervals between values and does not have a meaningful zero
14
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Experimental units
A
The things being experimented on
15
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Deception
A
Researchers tell a partial-truth
16
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Vulnerable populations
A
People who are unable to provide informed consent
17
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Negative control
A
Procedures not expected to produce results
18
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Positive control
A
Procedures with well-undersstood usually positive effects
19
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Experimental studies
A
Modify one or more involved variables to test the hypothesis
20
Q
Participants
A
When studying people
21
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Subjects
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When studying animals
22
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Ethical guidelines
A
The standard procedure of research morals
23
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Sample
A
A subset that is representative of the population
24
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Statistics
A
When a conclusion is based on a sample
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Population
An entire group of people
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Parameters
When a conclusion is based on a population
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Simple
Random sampling select participants purely randomly
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Cluster
Select clusters of participants randomly and they are similar to eacher other
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Stratified
Sort populations into subpopulations then randomly sample proportionately from those subpopulations
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Snowball
Initial participants are found then they refer researchers to other participants
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Bias
When an experiment artificially skews results in a certain way
32
Random sorting
Individuals are sorted randomly into the trial and control groups
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Randomized block design
Group first and then randomize
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Matched pair design
Each participant has a partner that matches them in a target variable that the experimenter thinks might be meaningful
35
Blinding
Refers to who knows wheter a participant is in the experimental or control group
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Unblinded
Everyone knows which participants are in which group
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Single-blinded
The participant doesn't know which group they're in but the researcher does know
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Double-blinded
Neither the participant nor the researcher knows which group the participant is in only a third party knows
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Observational studies
Scientists observe variables without manipulating them
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Cross-sectional studies
Study a sample at one point in time
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Longitudinal studies
Study one sample over time
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Cross-sequential studies
Combine cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
43
Case-control studies
Study 2 groups one that has a certain outcome and one that doesn't then the values of another variable are compared between groups and are used for rare outcomes
44
Quasi-experimental studies
Interventions are applied but not randomly are often longitudinal
45
Case studies
Dig deeply into few cases these are often used in the development of models which are often tested with other methods
46
Mixed methods
Approach combines multiple methods in a way that paints a more complete picture than any of the individual methods
47
Measure of central tendency
Estimates the center position of values in a dataset
48
Descriptive statistics
Describes data it does not seek relationships within it
49
Measure of dispersion
Describes how spread out the values of the data are
50
Discrete
Are numerical data restricted to a certain usually integer values
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Continuous
Are not restricted to certain number values
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Normal distribution
1. They have a bell shape
2. They are symmetrical
3. The mean is the center of the distribution
4. The area under the curve is 1
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Mean
This is the average that is calculated by adding up all the data points in a set and dvididing the total by the number of data points in the set
Advantage: Accounts for all the data and minimizes error
Disadvantage: Outliers can skew the mean
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Outliers
Outlying data points
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Median
The middle value of an ordered set
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Quartile
Split the data into 4 portions
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Interquartile range
The difference between the 3rd and 1st quartiles
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Mode
The value that is the most frequent in the set
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Variance
The square of the standard deviation
60
Standard deviation
A measure of dispersion which describes how spread the data points are
61
Boxplot
Provides a graphical display of the 5 number summary:
1. Min
2. Max
3. Q3
4. Q2
5. Q1
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Standard error
Standard deviation of a sampling distribution
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Error
The difference between the true value and a given measurement
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Random error
Ocurs in all types of measurements and is created by lack of instrument sensitivity as well as human error
65
Systematic error
Shifts all measurements in one direction leading to bias
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Accuracy
Is a measure of how closely individual measurements of some value agree with the true value
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Observer bias
Occurs when an observer intentionally or unintentionally records a measurement incorrectly
68
Instrument bias
Results from consisten malfunctioning of an instrument
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Subject bias
Results from situations in which study subjects intentionally or unintentionally misrepresent information
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Confidence interval
Is an estimated range of values that is likely to include an unknown population paramter at a given confidence level
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Level of confidence
The probability that the interval estimate contains the population parameter
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Hypothesis testing
Testing if the hypothesis is rejected or not
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Null hypothesis
THere is no relationship between the variables
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Alternative hypothesis
Contradicts the null hypothesis
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P-value
Represents the probability of the observations occurring due to chance alone if the value is low the outcome is unlike to have occurred by chance and we can infer that the variables are related
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Alpha-value
Pre-determined cut off value
p < alpha => reject Ho
p >/= alpha => fail to reject Ho
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Type I error
False positive -> rejecting Ho when you should not
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Type II error
False negative -> not rejecting Ho when you should
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Correlation
Estimates how much 2 variables are related
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Correlation coefficient
Is a measure of association between 3 variables that can vary -1
81
Simple linear regression
Describes how one variable is associated with another and is an extension of correlation
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Residuals
The difference between an observe value of the response variable ad the predicted value
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Chi-square test
Used when all variables are categorical
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T-test
Used to compare the average values of a quantitative variable between 2 categorical variables
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Analysis of variance
Is like a t-test but for more than 2 groups
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Internal validity
Is the degree to which the independent variable has been demonstrated to cause the dependent variable, the confounding variable is a big threat to internal validity
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External validity
Refers to the ability of a research design to provide results that can be generalized to other situation especially in the natural situations
88
Face validity
Refers to when something seems like it should work according to experts
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Temporality
Refers to when something seems like it should work according to experts
90
Ethnographic methods
Are the ones that observe people in their cultural setting
91
Biomedical approach
Only considers biological aspects of a patient's health
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Biopsychosocial approach
Integrates psychology, sociology, and biology in diagnoses and treatments
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Person
Is an individual member of a species
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Family
Including nuclear and extended families in these units individuals can be linked by marriage or birth
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Community
A group of people coming together in a larger unit that can be ideologically or geographically determined
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Culture
Is a collection of beliefs, practices, morals, rituals, and other habits
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Subculture
Smaller and has some small subset of differntiating values within a culture
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Counterculture
Has more substantial differentiating values from the culture
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Society
I a large social group sharing the same geographic or social territory ususally subjected to the same political authority and overall cultural expectations
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Nation
Is a cultural political community that is unified mostly by impersonal political needs
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Biosphere
All the living things on Earth and the area that they inhabit
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Cohorts
Different age groups
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Generation Z
1995-2003
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Millennials
1980s-2000
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Generation X
1965 – 1980
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Baby boomers
1946-1964
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Silent generation
1925-1945
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GI (Greatest) generation
1901-1924
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Dependency ratio
An age-based measurement takes people <14 and >65 who are not in the labour force, and compares that to # of people who are (15-64)
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Life course theory
Aging is a social, psychological, and biological process that begins
from time you born till time you die. a holistic perspective that calls attention to developmental processes and other experiences across a person’s life
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Age stratification theory
Suggests age is way of regulating behavior of a generation
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Activity theory
Looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or
jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged and maintain moral/well-being
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Disengagement theory
Older adults and society separate, assumes they become more
self-absorbed as they age. Separation allows for self-reflection. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.
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Continuity theory
People try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives
overtime. As they age people make decisions that preserve that structure and use it to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.
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Race
A socially defined category based on physical differences between groups of people.
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Racial formation theory
Looks at social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities
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Ethnicity
Is also socially defined, not defined by physical characteristics like race, but these groups are defined by shared language, religion, nationality, history, of some other cultural factor. Less statistically defined than racial groups and definitions can
change over time.
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Minority
Is a group that makes up less than half the total population and is
treated differently due to some characteristic.
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Discrimination
Unjust treatment of a category of people because they belong to the category
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Prejudice
Preconceived opinion that isn’t based on reason or experience. Discrimination often results from prejudice.
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Stereotype
Consider everyone in a group as identical
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Pluralism
Encourages racial and ethnic variation
123
Biological
Sex (male/female – the biological characteristics) person is born
with
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Identity
Gender (masculine/feminine – behaviors, roles, activities in society)
they identify
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Fornication
Gender they’re sexually attracted to
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Expression
Gender they express
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Attraction
Gender they’re romantically attracted to
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Sex
Biological factor
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Urbanization
Is movement of people from rural to urban areas
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Gender Role
A set of societal norms dictating
what types of behaviors are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on their actual or
perceived sex
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Urban
Is anywhere with <1000 people per square mile (ex. Farm country or Alaska). Has to have less than 25,000 residents
129
Rural
Areas include cities/towns with >1000 people per square mile.
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Suburbanization
Is movement away from cities to get a larger home (American dream),
but commute for work can be long and harder to get quick medical help
131
Globalization
Is the sharing of culture, money and products between countries due to
international trade and advancements in transportation and communication
132
World-systems theory
Importance of world as a unit rather than individual countries
133
Modernization theory
Every country has similar path in development from traditional to modern and todays third world countries can reach same
development as todays first world countries with help over time
134
Dependency theory
Reaction to modernization theory and states that third
world countries have their own unique structures and are poor and remain so because of their poor and unfavorable economic position in world economy
135
Hyper-globalists
Individual countries become less important as countries
become interdepend and global society takes presence.
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Skeptics
Believe that world is becoming regionalized not globalized.
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Transformationalists
National governments importance changing, and world order design changing as well.
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Culture
Is way of life shared by group of individuals – the knowledge, beliefs and values that bind a society together. Very diverse, can include artwork, language, and literature.
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Society
Is the way people organize themselves – bunch of people who live together in a
specific geographic area, and interact more with each other than outsiders. Share a common culture over time.
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High culture
Refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist in the highest
class segments of a society.
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Normative culture
Refers to values and behaviors that are in line with larger societal
norms
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Popular culture
Refers to patterns of experiences and attitudes that exist within
mainstream normative society
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Subculture
Is culture (ideas) of a meso-level (medium) sub-community (small
community) that distinguishes itself from the larger dominant culture of larger society/community
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Meso-level
Population size falls between micro and macro levels. They are
medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans,
and tribes.
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Micro-culture
Can’t support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one’s life
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Dominant group
Which have the power to determine the cultural expectations of society
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Counterculture
It refers to a subculture
that rejects some of the larger culture’s norms and values, and usually develop their
own set of norms to live by.
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Meso-level
They are medium sized groups such as communities, organizations, cities, states, clans, and tribes
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Micro-culture
Can’t support people throughout their lifespan, refers to groups/organizations only affecting limited period of one’s life
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Culture lag
Is the fact culture takes time to catch up with technological innovations,
resulting in social problems
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Material culture
Refers to physical and technological aspects of our daily lives, like food and houses, and phones
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Culture shock
Feelings of disorientation, uncertainty, or even fear when they
encounter unfamiliar culture practices
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Diffusion
Is the spread of an invention or discovery or ideas from one place to another
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Cultural assimilation
Is the interpenetration and fusion of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture
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Mass media
Dissemination of information, and how information is transmitted within a culture
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Cultural transmission
Culture is passed along from generation to generation through various childrearing practices,
including when parents expose children to music
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Horizontal mobility
Move within the same
class
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Caste system
Very little social mobility, because your role is determined entirely by background you’re born to and who you’re married to
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Class system
Allows for degree of social mobility, combination of background
and movement, often by education
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Intra-generational
mobility
If change in social class happens in a person’s own lifetime
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Absolute poverty
An absolute level at which if you go below, survival is threatened
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Intergenerational mobility
Change in social class between generations
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Relative Poverty
In developed countries, use a different marker – a % level below the
median country of the country
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Social reproduction
People with rich parents end up wealthy themselves
164
Social Capital
The networks of relationships among people who live and work in
a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively
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Cultural capital
Refers to non-financial social assets
that promote social mobility beyond economic means
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Social stratification
Is a society's categorization of
people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and
income, wealth and social status, or derived power (social and political)
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Theory of Intersectionality
Intersectionality calls attention to how identity categories intersect in systems of social stratification
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Regression
All variables examined are continuous
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Correlation
All variables examined are continuous
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Chi-square
When all variables are categorical, looks at if 2 distributions of categorical data differ from each other
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T-test
Compares mean values of a continuous variable (dependent) between 2 categories/groups
172
ANOVA
Similar to t-test, compare distributions of continuous variable between groups of categorical variable, but can be used for 3+ groups
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Cross-sectional study
Look at a group of different people at one moment in time
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Cohort study
Following a subset of population over a lifetime. A cohort is a group of
people who share a common characteristic
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Longitudinal study
Data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of
time, can take years or decades
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Case-control study
Observational study where 2 groups differing in outcome are identified and compared to find a causal factor
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Clinical trial
Highly controlled interventional studies
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Randomized controlled trial
People studied randomly given one of treatments under study, used to test efficacy/side effects of medical interventions like drugs
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Experimental study
Would involve manipulation of variables, which was not present in
this study
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Quasi-experimental design
Is similar to an experimental
design but lacks random assignment
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3x2 factorial design
We have three levels of the first variable crossed with two levels of the second variable
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Observational study
In an observational study, the researcher is unable to control the
assignment of groups
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Validity
“ACTUALLY GETTING AN SNSWER FOR SOMETHING YOU WISH TO MEAUSRE”
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Internal validity
Extent to which a causal conclusion based on a study is warranted
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External validity
Whether results of the study can be generalized to other situations
and other people
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Population validity
Is a type of external validity which
describes how well the sample used can be extrapolated to a population as a whole
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Ecological validity
Ecological validity is a type of external validity which looks at
the testing environment and determines how much it influences behavior
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Construct validity
Describes the extent to which the theory is supported by the data or results of the research
189
Content validity
The extent to which an assessment
measures the entire construct fully
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Reliability
CONSISTENT RESULTS WITH
REPEATED EXPERIMENTS
191
Couterbalancing
Method to control for any effect that the order of presenting
stimuli might have on the dependent variable
192
Vehicular control
What experimental group does without the directly desired impact
193
Positive control
Treatment with known response
194
Negative control
Group with no response expected
195
Mediating variable
That works indirectly through a more direct cause (mediator variable) to a final effect (outcome variable, dependent variable)
196
Moderating variable
Is a variable that specifies conditions under which a given predictor is related to an outcome
197
Bias
Failure to be objective
198
Hindsight bias
Also known as the knew-it-all-along effect
199
Normalcy Bias
Causes people to underestimate both the possibility of a disaster occurring and its possible effects
200
Reconstructive bias
Is a type of bias related to memory
201
Attrition bias
Occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study
202
Social desirability bias
Is a type of bias related to how people respond to research
questions
203
Selection bias
Refers to a type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate
204
Subjective bias
Self-reported information is always vulnerable to subjective bias
205
Implicit bias
Refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect an individual’s
understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner
206
Cognitive bias
Often cause deviations from a standard of rationality or good judgment
