chapter 26 Flashcards
tradition and change in east asia
Who granted Matteo Ricci permission to travel to Beijing and establish a mission?
emperor Wanli
Chiming ___________ enchanted Wanli and his court and soon became the rage in elite society throughout China.
mechanical clocks
While Chinese emperors showed no interest in Christianity, the chiming bells symbolized what in terms of European and Chinese relations?
increasing engagement between Asian and European peoples
What dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty?
Qing dynasty
What were the principles of Ming and Qing emperors?
- deeply conservative
- principal concern was to maintain stability in large agrarian (relating to cultivation) society
- adopted policies that favored Chinese political and cultural traditions
Who was the founder of the Ming dynasty?
Hongwu
- significant for his use of mandarins who oversaw implementation of government policies
- placed great trust in eunuchs
Why was emperor Yongle’s efforts significant to the increasing power of the Ming dyansty?
- naval expeditions that spread Chinese culture as far as east Africa
- maintained tightly centralized state that Hongwu established
The Ming emperors were determined to prevent what?
new invasions
Where did Yongle move the Chinese capital to in 1421 to keep closer watch on the Mongols?
Beijing
Early Ming emperors commanded powerful armies that slowly lost their effectiveness in controlling Mongol armies, whilst later Ming emperors sought to protect their realm by…?
building new fortifications, such as the Great Wall of China
When/who ordered construction of the original Great Wall?
first emperor of the Qin dynasty ordered construction of long defensive wall in 3rd century BCE, early walls fell to ruin
After the original Great Wall projects undertaken by the Qin dynasty fell to ruin, what dynasty undertook the new project?
Ming dynasty
- workers labored in hundreds of thousands throughout late 15th and 16th centuries to build wall
How long was the Great Wall?
2,500 km or 1,550 miles
How tall is the Great Wall?
15 meters, or 33-49 feet high
In addition to the construction of new fortifications, what else did the Ming dynasty do to eradicate Mongol and other foreign influences to create a stable society in the image of the Chinese past?
- individuals abandoned Mongol names and dress with Ming encouragement
- restored institutions that the Mongols had ignored or suppressed
- government sponsored study of Chinese cultural traditions, especially Confucianism
- provided financial support for imperial academies and regional colleges
- restored system of civil service examinations that Mongols neglected
Ming rule did not survive beyond the ____________ century.
mid-sixteenth
Suppression of pirates that disrupted Ming coastal communities took more than ___ years.
40
Why did suppressing the pirates threatening the Ming’s ineffective coastal defenses take so long?
increasingly inept imperial government
How did Ming government begin to weaken, leading to its collapse?
- Ming emperors lived extravagantly in their imperial enclaves while receiving news about the outside world from their servants and administrators
- emperors sometimes ignored government affairs while satisfying their own interests
- authority of eunuchs increased, while emperor authority decreased and corruption and inefficiency spread throughout government
In addition to pirate attacks and devolution of Ming government, what other forces contributed to Ming decline?
- inability to organize effective relief efforts amidst famine struck regions
- Invasions from Manchu forces from the north who captured capital at Beijing and displaced Ming dynasty
Where was the Manchus homeland?
Manchuria north of the Great Wall
What does “qing” translate to?
“pure”
The Manchus were mostly _______ _______, although many had turned to agriculture and settled in the rich farmlands of southern Manchuria.
pastoral nomads
Who was an ambitious chieftain who unified Manchu tribes into a centralized state?
Nurhaci (r. 1616-1626)
What factors contributed to the Manchu’s success in establishing the Qing dynasty?
- military prowess
- Chinese support for the Manchus
- Chinese generals willingly deserted Ming dynasty because of corruption and inefficiency
How did the Machus preserve their own ethnic and cultural identity in the Qing dynasty?
- only outlawed intermarriage between Manchus and Chinese
- forbade Chinese from traveling to Manchuria and from learning Manchurian language
- Qing authorities forced Chinese men to shave front of heads and grow Manchu-style queue as a sign of submission to dynasty
Who was a Confucian scholar and enlightened ruler who applied his studies of Confucian classics to creation of policies in the Qing dynasty?
Kangxi (1661-1722)
How did Kangxi project Chinese influence into central Asia and forestall problems with nomadic peoples?
through conquest:
- conquered island of Taiwan
- conquests in Mongolia and extended almost to Caspian Sea
- imposed Chinese protectorate over Tibet
How is Qianlong related to Kangxi?
Qianlong is Kangxi’s grandson
How did Qianlong consolidate Kangxi’s conquests in central Asia?
maintaining military garrisons in eastern Turkestan, and encouraging merchants to settle there in hopes that they would stabilize the region
What lands did Qianlong make vassal states of the Qing dynasty?
Vietnam, Burma, and Nepal
Under whose rule did the Qing dynasty experience its height?
Qianlong, China remained a wealthy and well-organized land
What marked Qianlong’s rule as highly successful and propelled the Qing dynasty to become more prosperous?
- imperial treasury bulged so much that Qianlong had to cancel tax collections four times
- Qianlong paid less attention to imperial affairs and delegated many responsibilities to his favorite eunuchs
Both Ming and Qing dynasties presided over tightly centralized states, which they administered through a bureaucracy staffed by __________ ________.
Confucian scholars
How long did the autocratic state created by the Ming emperor Hongwu govern China’s fortunes?
more than 500 years
Chinese tradition held that the emperor was more than a mere mortal, that he was considered what?
the “son of heaven”—the human being designated by heavenly powers to maintain order on earth
What was involved in the kowtow ritual?
three kneelings and nine head knockings before personal audience with the emperor
The superiority and utmost authority held by Chinese emperors was similar to that of what other emperors in history?
Byzantine emperors who reserved royal colors for their dress, carefully choreographed daily activities–conveyed sense of awesome authority
The class of scholar bureaucrats came from the class of well-educated and highly literate men known as…?
the scholar gentry
Day-to-day governance of Chinese empire fell to _____________ appointed by the emperor.
scholar-bureaucrats
How did the scholar-gentry obtain their positions?
passed rigorous civil service examinations
- prepared for these exams at early age
- memorized thousands of characters necessary to deal with Confucian curriculum
What subjects did the scholar-gentry have to study to pass the civil service examinations?
mainly Confucian works and curriculum like the “Analects of Confucius” in addition to calligraphy, poetry, essay composition
What were the “eight-legged essays”?
literary compositions with eight distinct sections
Describe the process of the civil service examination.
- number of candidates to pass metropolitan examination restricted
- guards verify identities and search for hidden printed materials
- sent to small cell chambers with only a bench, a makeshift bed, and boards
- spent three days and two nights in these rooms writing eight-legged essays in response to questions posed by examiners
- no interruptions, no communication between candidates
What did each candidate have to bring for their three-day civil service examination?
water pitcher, chamber pot, bedding, food, an inkstone, ink, and brushes
Those who passed the metropolitan examinations could look forward to what?
powerful positions in the imperial bureaucracy
Those who only passed the district exams had limited prospects to what?
few opportunities for bureaucratic employment and usually spent careers teaching in local schools or serving as family tutors
By concentrating on Confucian classics and neo-Confucian commentaries, the examinations guaranteed that ___________ would be at the heart of the Chinese education and that Confucians would govern the state.
Confucianism
How did the civil service examinations ensure that competition for degrees was ferocious at all levels?
the possibly of bureaucratic service, prospects for rich social and financial awards
How did the examinations act as a pivotal institution in terms of its inclusivity and promises of upward mobility?
- opened the door to honor, power, and rewards, encouraging pusuit of a formal education
- did not erect social barriers
- candidates of wealthier families enjoyed advantages as they could more easily travel to examination sites
- but exams open to all males regardless of age or social class
- molded the personal values of those who managed affairs in imperial China (largely influenced by Confucianism)
Developments in trade, manufacturing, and urban growth did what to the stability that the Ming and Qing dynasties sought to preserve?
disrupted and partly undermined such stability
What did filial piety imply?
the duties of children toward their fathers and also loyalty of subjects toward the emperor
Like the imperial government, the Chinese family was…?
hierarchical, patriarchal, and authoritarian
What duties did filial piety imply for children towards their fathers/parents?
children had the duty to look after their parents’ happiness and well-being
- crucial obligation to support parents at an old age
What were the principal motives behind clan-supported education?
corporate self-interest and altruism (unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others)
- government position brought prestige and prosperity to the entire clan, so educational support was a prudent investment
Clans were a form of what?
patrilineal descent group
What responsibilities did clans hold?
maintenance of local order, organization of local economies, and provision for welfare
- responsibilities went beyond that of nuclear families
included educational support and transmission of Confucian values
Who typically served as leaders of clans?
members of the gentry usually dominated
Whereas boys had the opportunity for upward social mobility via official examinations to bring honor and financial reward to the entire clan, how did parents regard girls?
as a social and financial liability
- many newborn girls primary victims of infanticide
During the Ming and Qing dynasties, patriarchal authority over females probably…?
became tighter than ever before in China
- practice of foot binding exceptionally popular during late Ming and Qing dynasties
The practice of foot binding became most widespread among the _________ ______, since it demonstrated an ability to support women who could not perform physical labor.
wealthy classes
While foot binding was a practice most widespread among the wealthy classes, why might commoners bind the feet of their girls?
bind the feet of especially pretty girls in hopes of arranging favorable marriages that would enhance the family’s social standing
Marriage was a contractual affair whose principal purpose was…?
to continue the male line of descent
What were mens’ and womens’ rights in a marriage?
- bride became a member of the husband’s family and there was no ambiguity about her position in the household, eternally providing subservience to her husband and new family
- women could not divorce husbands
- men could put aside their wives for any reason; no male offspring, wife guilty of adultery or theft, wife too talkative
How was patriarchal authority in Chinese families during the Ming and Qing dynasties strengthened?
through custom and law
China was a predominantly ______________ society, a fact that was meshed agreeably with the Confucian view that land was the source of everything praiseworthy.
agricultural
The emperor acknowledged the central importance of agriculture by…?
plowing the first furrow of the season
What percent of China’s land is in cultivation?
11 percent
To feed the country’s large population, China’s farmers relied on what method of agriculture?
intensive, garden-style agriculture that was highly productive
How did Chinese peasants increase their yields of traditional food crops like rice, wheat, and millet?
intensively cultivating every available parcel of land
What American crops introduced by Spanish merchants increased the food supply of China?
American maize, sweet potatoes, and peanuts allowed farmers to take advantage of soils that were previously largely uncultivated
How did rapidly increasing population result in greater problems?
agricultural production could not keep pace with population over a long term
While increasing population placed pressure on Chinese resources, what happened to the commercial market?
Commercial market increasingly offered opportunities for entrepreneurs
- entrepreneurs had access to large labor force that both occupationally and geographically mobile, able to readily recruit workers at a low cost
Compensation for exports came most importantly in the form of what?
silver bullion
