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Biology 224 > Chapter Four: Origin and General Features of Cells > Flashcards

Chapter Four: Origin and General Features of Cells Flashcards

1
Q

The Cell Theory (3)

A
  1. Cells are the fundamental unit of life
  2. All organisms are composed of Cells
  3. All cells come from preexisting cells
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2
Q

As cells increase in volume the surface area also increases, but at a ___________ rate.

A

lesser

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3
Q

The cell’s ____________ determines its metabolic activity.

A

volume

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4
Q

The cell’s ________ ________ determines the rate of transport into and out of the cell.

A

surface area

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5
Q

As a cell grows, its ____________ ____________ increases, but at a rate faster than the increase in surface area.

A

Metabolic Activity

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6
Q

Magnification makes something ___________

A

larger

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7
Q

resolution makes something _____________

A

clearer

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8
Q

Microscopes increase both the ____________ and _____________ of objects

A

magnification and resolution

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9
Q

The ability to see two objects as two instead of one object

A

Resolution

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10
Q

What kind of microscope uses light passing through the sample to observe objects?

A

Light Microscope

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11
Q

200 nm (2 x 10^-4 mm) is the resolving power for what microscope?

A

Light Microscope

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12
Q

What kind of microscope uses an electron beam passing through the sample to view objects?

A

Transmission Electron Microscope

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13
Q

What kind of microscope’s resolving power is 0.2 nm (2 x 10^-7 mm)

A

Transmission Electron Microscope

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14
Q

Cells must be killed and stained with heavy metals to block the electron beam in what microscope?

A

Transmission Electron Microscope

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15
Q

What microscope coats the surface of the sample with heavy metal stains, then uses an electron beam to scan the surface and obtain more of a 3D view of the surface?

A

Scanning Electron Microscope

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16
Q

What microscope’s resolution is about 10nm?

A

Scanning Electron Microscope

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17
Q

Life requires an interaction between what three things?

A
  1. DNA
  2. RNA
  3. Protein
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18
Q

What are the four proposed stages of the origin of life?

A
  1. production of nucleotides and amino acids
  2. polymerization of these monomers into polymers
  3. enclosing the polymers in membranes
  4. membrane-bound photocells acquire cellular properties
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19
Q

What did Oparin and Haldane propose in the 1920s?

A

Nucleotides and Amino Acids were produced spontaneously under early earth conditions

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20
Q

Oparin and Haldane suggested that monomers were produced and accumulated in what is called a “____________ __________”

A

Primordial Soup

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21
Q

In the 1950s, geologists suggested the early Earth’s atmosphere was a reducing one consisting of what three molecules?

A
  1. Water Vapor
  2. Hydrogen
  3. Ammonia
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22
Q

It is important there was no free ___________, since that would destroy any organic molecules produced.

A

Oxygen

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23
Q

What did Stanley Miller produce in 1953?

A

An enclosed system which circulated reducing gases in which a spark produced an energy source and produced simple organic molecules

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24
Q

Those who have suggested that Miller is wrong says that the atmosphere is composed mostly of what 5 molecules?

A
  1. Carbon Monoxide
  2. Carbon Dioxide
  3. Nitrogen
  4. Sulfur Dioxide
  5. Water
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25
Q

The mixture of the five atmospheric molecules gives less diversity and __________ yields of amino acids.

A

lower

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26
Q

UV light would destroy _____________ and _____________, preventing their accumulation in an early atmosphere.

A

Methane and Ammonia

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27
Q

Other scientists suggest that _____________ could have brought sufficient amounts of organic molecules to Earth.

A

Meteorites

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28
Q

Other scientists suggest molecules would form at the edge of ________ ______ _______ where super-heated gasses are vented.

A

Deep Sea Vents

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29
Q

Chemically the ________ Phosphodiester linkage is preferred over the _________ linkage.

A

5 prime - 2 prime
5 prime - 3 prime

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30
Q

Has Ribose been proven possible under any of the conditions expected in early Earth system?

A

No

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31
Q

Where does Steve Benner propose RNA is formed and how it comes to Earth?

A

It was formed on Mars and came to Earth on meteorites

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32
Q

Monomers attach together to form…

A

Polymers

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33
Q

Hydrolysis would compete with __________________ reactions (polymerization)

A

Condensation

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34
Q

Water promotes ________________ removal

A

depurination/base

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35
Q

It is unlikely that ______________ would occur in aqueous environments, but rather on solid surfaces

A

Polymerization

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36
Q

Many ________ bind Nucleotides and Amino Acids.

A

clays

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37
Q

__________ can position Nucleotides to connect the phosphate of one with the Ribose of another.

A

Cations

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38
Q

Cations favor the use of _________ over T and C

A

A and G

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39
Q

Cations favor _________ over A and G

A

Inosine

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40
Q

Clays promote ____________ in presence of water

A

decomposition

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41
Q

A normal peptide bond requires a ___________ to insure correct bond formation

A

Ribosome

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42
Q

Side chain of _______ ________ can bond to the side chain, amino or carboxyl of another

A

amino acids

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43
Q

Majority of bonds formed abiotically are NOT _________ _________.

A

Peptide Bonds

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44
Q

________________ _________ or Phosphate group of one can attach to any of the four hydroxyl groups of Ribose

A

Nitrogenous Base

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45
Q

If polymers were formed, they would have to be enclosed in _____________ and develop the ability to reproduce

A

membranes

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46
Q

Organic molecules would need to be __________ from the external environment.

A

separated

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47
Q

They would eventually need _________ __________ to create new polymers and harness energy

A

enzymatic functions

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48
Q

If phospholipids are dissolved in water, they form __________

A

Liposomes

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49
Q

If Liposomes form near ______ it can be incorporated into the Liposome.

A

RNA

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50
Q

RNA that isn’t incorporated into the Liposome requires ___________ ______________.

A

protein transporters

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51
Q

_____% of all proteins function in membranes

A

30

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52
Q

Are membranes made from scratch?

A

No

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53
Q

All membranes come from ___________ _____________.

A

preexisting membranes

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54
Q

Favored models of the production of cells propose an “__________ world”

A

RNA

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55
Q

According to favored models, RNA can do what 3 things?

A
  1. function as genetic material
  2. function as enzymes
  3. reproduce
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56
Q

the minimum complexity needed to maintain the processes in the simplest cells is defined as…..

A

Irreducible Complexity

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57
Q

Cells need a minimum of _______ genes

A

493

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58
Q

DNA replication in simplest prokaryotes requires _____ enzymes and _______ polypeptides

A

14 and 25

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59
Q

DNA cannot replicate without ________

A

proteins

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60
Q

proteins cannot be produced without _______ and __________

A

DNA and RNA

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61
Q

What are the two domains of prokaryotic cells?

A

Eubacteria and Archaebacteria

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62
Q

Name the three characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells:

A
  • lack membrane-bound organelles
  • are relatively simple in structure
  • are generally smaller than eukaryotic cells
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63
Q

Name the structure and function of the PLASMA MEMBRANE

A

single membrane
regulate transport

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64
Q

Name the structure and function of a NUCLEOID

A

Aqueous
Heredity

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65
Q

Name the structure and function of the CYTOPLASM

A

Aqueous
Biochemical Reactions

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66
Q

Name the structure and function of RIBOSOMES

A

Solid - RNA and Proteins
Protein Synthesis

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67
Q

Name the structure and function of the CELL WALL

A

Peptidoglycan Membrane
Protection/Support

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68
Q

Name the structure and function of a CAPSULE

A

Polysaccharides
Protection/Hydration

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69
Q

Name the structure and function of the FLAGELLA

A

Solid - Proteins
Movement

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70
Q

Name the four domains of Eukaryotic Cells

A

Kingdoms Protista
Plantae
Fungi
Animalia

71
Q

What are the three characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells?

A
  1. possess membrane-bound organelles
  2. are complex in structure with many organelles
  3. are larger in size
72
Q

The Cytoplasm is an aqueous mixture of a wide variety of __________

A

proteins

73
Q

The three fibers within the cytoskeleton are constructed from _______ __________

A

protein monomers

74
Q

Large, long hollow tubes of Tubulin contributing to the Cytoskeleton

A

Microtubules

75
Q

_________ and ___________ _________ control microtubule growth from one point to another

A

Centrioles and Basal Bodies

76
Q

Microtubules form cellular “_________” along which vesicles and chromosomes move using molecular “__________” (Kinesin)

A

roads
motors

77
Q

Motor proteins are attached to either _______ (cargo) or other cytoskeleton elements

A

vesicles

78
Q

Motor proteins have areas that can bind and split _____, and others that move.

A

ATP

79
Q

Motor proteins either move vesicles containing various molecules, or other parts of cytoskeleton to create _________ _________ or _____________.

A

shape changes
movements

80
Q

Microtubules form ________ and _________ for cellular locomotion

A

Cilia and Flagella

81
Q

Microtubules form the _______ ________ for moving chromosomes during cell division

A

mitotic spindle

82
Q

What is the structure of Intermediate Filaments

A

Thin rods of Keratin

83
Q

________ ____________ are stable elements of the cytoskeleton that are not constantly growing and shrinking

A

Intermediate Filaments

84
Q

What is the function of Intermediate Filaments?

A

Maintain cellular shape and provide mechanical strength to cells

85
Q

Intermediate Filaments line the inside of the _______ _______ to anchor __________ _______

A

Nuclear Membrane
Nuclear Pores

86
Q

What is the structure of microfilaments?

A

Thin rods of Actin proteins

87
Q

Microfilaments can exist as ______ ___________, in bundles or in networks

A

single filaments

88
Q

What are the five functions of Microfilaments?

A
  1. Cellular movements
  2. Cytoplasmic division
  3. Support Plasma Membrane
  4. Anchor Proteins
  5. Provide Strength and Shape to Cell
89
Q

Name the structure and function of the NUCLEUS

A

Double Membrane
Stores DNA

90
Q

Nuclear Pores _______ __________ between the Nucleus and the Cytoplasm

A

regulate transport

91
Q

The Nuclear pores are surrounded by a complex of ___ large protein granules

A

8

92
Q

Proteins targeted for the Nucleus have a short peptide ________ __________ __________

A

Nuclear Localization Signal

93
Q

Nucleolus: consists of the gene(s) which codes for _____________ ______

A

Ribosomal RNA

94
Q

rRNAs are needed for ______________ construction

A

Ribosome

95
Q

The outer of the two Nuclear Membranes is in places continuous with the _________ ___________

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum

96
Q

What six things are within the Endomembrane System?

A
  1. Nuclear Envelope
  2. Ensoplasmic Reticulum
  3. Golgi Apparatus
  4. Lysosomes
  5. Plasma Membrane
  6. Vesicles
97
Q

What is the structure of the Endoplasmic Reticulum?

A

Single membrane surrounding a central lumen
consists of tubes and flattened sacs

98
Q

What percent of the cell’s total volume does the ER compose?

A

10%

99
Q

It’s membranes, because of the many folds, is many times __________ than the Plasma Membrane

A

greater

100
Q

The Rough ER is studded with…

A

Ribosomes

101
Q

Ribosomes synthesize _______ which are transported into the lumen of the _________, segregating them from the Cytoplasm

A

proteins
ER

102
Q

The proteins in the ER can be ___________ _____________ to alter their functions

A

chemically modified

103
Q

Proteins are also “tagged” with a short peptide signal to mark them for _________ to various organelles by vesicles

A

delivery

104
Q

Some of these proteins have an oligosaccharides chain attached and form ______________

A

Glycoproteins

105
Q

Rough ER _____________ glycoproteins, membrane-bound proteins, and proteins destined for various organelles

A

Synthesizes

106
Q

In the Rough ER, ribosomes synthesize proteins which are transported into the lumen of the ER, segregating them from the ______________

A

Cytoplasm

107
Q

What organelle lacks ribosomes and is more tubular than flattened sacs; continuous with sections of the Rough ER?

A

Smooth ER

108
Q

In the Smooth ER, detoxification of various poisons taken into the body by modifying them to be more ___________ and easier to excrete from the cell

A

Polar

109
Q

The Smooth ER contains ______________ needed for Glycogen and Calcium metabolism

A

Enzymes

110
Q

The Smooth ER synthesizes ____________ for membranes and other lipids including steroid hormones

A

Phospholipids

111
Q

What organelle is made of flattened sacs and has a single membrane surrounding central lumen?

A

Golgi Apparatus

112
Q

The Golgi Apparatus adds or modifies ____________ portions of Glycoproteins

A

Carbohydrate

113
Q

Proteolysis occurs in what organelle?

A

Golgi Apparatus

114
Q

proteases cut proteins into smaller, functional proteins
EX: proinsulin –> insulin

A

Proteolysis

115
Q

What organelle concentrates, packages and sorts proteins before being transported to cellular destinations?

A

Golgi Apparatus

116
Q

transport proteins from the ER to the cis to medial to the trans regions of the Golgi Apparatus

A

Vesicles

117
Q

Large vesicles containing digestive enzymes (Glycoproteins), surrounded by a single membrane

A

Lysosome

118
Q

What organelle digests via Hydrolytic Reactions?

A

Lysosome

119
Q

Formed by vesicles containing Hydrolytic Enzymes forming form the Golgi

A

Primary Lysosomes

120
Q

Formed by the fusion of a primary lysosome and a food vacuole (phagosome)

A

Secondary Lysosome

121
Q

Large and small solid subunits composed of 1-3 rRNAs and 20-30 Proteins

A

Ribosomes

122
Q

Involved in protein synthesis and is free in the Cytoplasm, attached to the ER, or inside Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

A

Ribosomes

123
Q

Similar to large vesicles, they store food or waste materials and maintain turgor pressure

A

Vacuoles

124
Q

Freshwater protists use them to excrete excess water. Water diffuses in, then this vacuole contacts, forcing water out of a pore

A

Contractile Vacuoles

125
Q

Vesicle-like and contains enzymes for specific functions

A

Microbodies

126
Q

These organelles contain catalase that is used to degrade Hydrogen Peroxide (a byproduct in many reactions). They also synthesize as vesicles from the ER.

A

Peroxisomes

127
Q

This is a byproduct of many reactions, but in high levels can be toxic. It is degraded by Peroxisomes.

A

Hydrogen Peroxide

128
Q

These organelles are like peroxisomes, and contain enzymes for specific reactions, found primarily in plant seeds, and convert stored lipids into carbohydrates for growth

A

Glyoxysomes

129
Q

Surrounds the cell and divides it from the external environment

A

Plasma Membrane

130
Q

What organelle facilitates membrane transport, facilitates cell signaling, facilitates cell adhesion, and is part of the endomembrane system?

A

Plasma Membrane

131
Q

What fills the role of facilitating membrane transport?

A

Protein transporters

132
Q

What fills the role of facilitating cell signaling?

A

Hormones

133
Q

What fills the role of facilitating cell adhesion?

A

Different types of proteins

134
Q

This organelle produces and stores various carotenoid pigments producing red, yellow and orange colors in flowers and fruit

A

Chromoplasts

135
Q

What type of organelles are both Mitochondria and Chloroplasts?

A

Semiautonomous Organelles

136
Q

What organelle’s responsibility is cellular respiration?

A

Mitochondria

137
Q

What organelle’s responsibility is photosynthesis?

A

Chloroplasts

138
Q

What two organelles can divide independently of the cell due to containing their own DNA and Ribosomes?

A

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

139
Q

What organelle is double membraned and converts energy in organic molecules to ATP?

A

Mitochondria

140
Q

Cellular respiration begins in the Cytoplasm with _________________

A

Glycolysis

141
Q

After Glycolysis, cellular respiration continues in the Mitochondria with the _____________ __________ and Electron Transport

A

Krebs Cycle

142
Q

What is the end product of Cellular Respiration?

A

ATP

143
Q

A modified nucleotide with a high energy content

A

ATP

144
Q

If the inner mitochondrial membrane has special pores for protons, the Electron Transport generates _________ instead of ATP

A

heat

145
Q

These organelles are chloroplasts and have three membranes

A

Plastids

146
Q

Chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigments, embedded within internal stacks of membranes called…..

A

Thylakoids

147
Q

The fluid surrounding the Thylakoids is the ___________

A

Stroma

148
Q

Only 10% of the Thylakoid Membrane is ______________

A

Phospholipids

149
Q

These organelles store food (starch and fats)

A

Leucoplasts

150
Q

This organelle is a thin mat of cellulose fibers that supports the cell. It limits the volumes of the cell to help maintain Turgor Pressure and forms a barrier to prevent infection by Fungi and Bacteria

A

Cell Wall

151
Q

What is the starting point of the Endosymbiont Theory?

A

Prokaryotic cells - some had Aerobic Respiration and others had Photosynthesis

152
Q

What is the Engulfment stage in Endosymbiont Theory?

A

Large Prokaryotic cells engulf smaller ones but do not digest them

153
Q

According to Endosymbiont Theory, over time these engulfed cells become what two double membrane organelles?

A

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

154
Q

Interwoven mat of Collagen and a matrix of Glycoproteins (Proteoglycans)

A

Extracellular Matrix

155
Q

Proteins that link other proteins together into a continuous unit and helps connect adjacent cells together are major roles of the….

A

Extracellular Matrix

156
Q

In Eukaryotic cells, each organelle has its own set of ___________ which carry out most of the functions of that organelle

A

Proteins

157
Q

Most proteins are synthesized on Ribosomes in the ___________

A

Cytoplasm

158
Q

If proteins are not destined for an organelle, then they will stay in the _______________

A

Cytoplasm

159
Q

Many proteins take the first step in sorting them to organelles as they are ____________

A

Translated

160
Q

The first 12-20 amino acids in Cotranslational Sortingare ____________ and form an ER Sorting Signal

A

Non-polar

161
Q

A special protein, ________________, finds and binds the signal (Hydrophobic amino acids)

A

Signal Recognition Protein (SRP)

162
Q

SRP drags the Ribosome to the _________ and attaches to the SRP Receptor

A

ER

163
Q

When SRP docks with the Receptor, the protein chain is threaded through the ______________________

A

Channel Protein

164
Q

The protein that is threaded through the channel protein is then threaded through the ER so it will end up in the _____________ of the ER. The SRP is now finished and leaves

A

Lumen

165
Q

After the proteins are translated, they are packaged into ___________ for transport to the destination organelle

A

Vesicles

166
Q

The vesicles destined for an organelle have specific _________ embedded in the membrane to help concentrate the proteins being carried and to help the vesicle fuse with the proper target organelle

A

Proteins

167
Q

Proteins that are destined for the Nucleus, Microbodies, Mitochondria and Chloroplast are synthesized on ______________ in the Cytoplasm are sorted after they are made

A

Ribosomes

168
Q

The first 12-20 amino acids in post-translational sorting on these proteins are special sequences which act as a ______________ ___________

A

Sorting Signal

169
Q

The Transit Sequence is bound and transported to a receptor protein on the outer _______________ membrane

A

Mitochondrial

170
Q

______________ proteins keep the protein in an unfolded condition so it can be threaded through the channel protein more easily

A

Chaperone

171
Q

The protein is threaded through a channel protein where it is delivered to the ____________ and its signal sequence is removed. The Chaperone protein detaches and assumes its active shape ti become active in the duties of the ___________________

A

Matrix
Mitochondria

172
Q

___________ proteins are unique in that their signal or transit sequences are not removed

A

Nuclear

173
Q

The position of the _________ keeps changing with each cell division and Nuclear proteins must be gathered and delivered to the new _____________
(same word in both blanks)

A

Nucleus

Biology 224 (16 decks)

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