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Integrated Physiology > Exam 2 (Chapter 10) > Flashcards

Exam 2 (Chapter 10) Flashcards

1
Q

what types of senses are apart of the special senses?

A

vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium

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2
Q

what types of senses are apart of the somatic senses?

A

touch, temp, nociception (pain, itch), proprioception (awareness of body movement & position)

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3
Q

what are the steps to a general sensory pathway?

A
  1. stimulus
  2. sensory receptor
  3. change in membrane potential
  4. afferent signal
  5. CNS
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4
Q

what are the three receptor types?

A

free nerve endings
complex neural receptors
non-neural

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5
Q

what are free nerve endings?

A

they don’t have a separate receptor cell
-primary sensory neuron is the receptor & the signal

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6
Q

what are complex neural receptors?

A

encased in connective tissue capsules
-no separate receptor cell (primary neuron is both)

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7
Q

what are non-neural receptor cells?

A

separate receptor cell that forms a synapse w/ primary sensory neuron
-releases NT for special senses!

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8
Q

what are chemoreceptors?

A

changes in chemicals (O2, CO2, pH, glucose)

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9
Q

what are mechanoreceptors?

A

changes in pressure, vibration, stretch

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10
Q

what are thermoreceptors?

A

changes in temperature

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11
Q

what are photoreceptors?

A

changes in light

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12
Q

what are proprioceptors?

A

found in joints & muscles

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13
Q

what are nociceptors?

A

changes in pain & itch

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14
Q

what type of receptor does taste and smell bind to?

A

chemoreceptors

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15
Q

what type of receptor does hearing, equilibrium, and touch bind to?

A

mechanoreceptor

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16
Q

what type of receptor does vision bind to?

A

photoreceptors

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17
Q

what is meant by saying an adequate stimulus?

A

the stimulus a receptor is most sensitive to

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18
Q

what is receptor potential?

A

another word for graded potential
-change in sensory receptor membrane potential that can generate an AP if it reaches the threshold

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19
Q

what is a receptive field?

A

physical area that activates somatic senses or vision neurons

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20
Q

larger the receptive field….

A

the less sensitive it is to a stimulus and the more convergence

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21
Q

1-point discrimination

A

less stimuli converge to a single secondary neuron
-perceived as a single point

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22
Q

2-point discrimination

A

more convergence onto secondary neuron
-perceived as two points

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23
Q

how does sensory information enter the CNS via the spinal cord?

A

through ascending pathways

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24
Q

how does sensory information enter the CNS directly into the brain?

A

through cranial nerves

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25
Q

which sense does NOT have to go through the thalamus to get into the CNS?

A

smell (olfaction)

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26
Q

what is perceptual threshold?

A

level needed to be aware or perceive a sensation

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27
Q

what are the four properties of a simulus?

A

modality
location
intensity
duration

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28
Q

what is modality?

A

which sensory neurons are activated & where pathways terminate
-each receptor most sensitive to particular form of energy
-labeled line coding

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29
Q

what is labeled line coding?

A

1 modality with one type of receptor
-stimulation of cold receptor = always a cold sensation

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30
Q

what is location?

A

which receptive fields are activated
-topographical arrangement of cerebrum
-lateral inhibition and population coding

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31
Q

what is lateral inhibition?

A

secondary neuron with most activation will inhibit it’s neighbors
-makes sensation more localized

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32
Q

what is population coding?

A

multiple receptors work to send info to CNS
-can determine characteristics of a stimulus

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33
Q

what is intensity?

A

number of receptors activated and frequency of APs
-stronger stimulus = more APs

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34
Q

what is duration?

A

longer the stimulus = longer the AP’s occur
-two types: tonic & phasic

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35
Q

what are tonic receptors?

A

slow adapting
-fire rapidly at first, then slow & maintain firing as long as stimulus presents
-only fire when we need to monitor something
-proprioceptors, baroreceptors

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36
Q

what are phasic receptors?

A

fast adapting
-fire rapidly at first, then cease firing if stimulus remains constant
-touch / tactile receptors

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37
Q

what three types of senses go through the medulla?

A

fine touch, proprioception, vibration

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38
Q

what three types of senses go through the spinal cord?

A

nociception, temperature, coarse touch

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39
Q

what two areas do pathways for somatic perception project to?

A

cortex and cerebellum

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40
Q

what is the somatosensory cortex?

A

-area at the front of the parietal lobe
-registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
-has sensory fields (bigger = more sensitivity)
-has cortical columns

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41
Q

what are pascinian corpuscles? tonic or phasic receptors?

A

respond to vibration and deep pressure
-phasic receptors (fast adaptation)

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42
Q

what are meissner’s corpuscles? tonic or phasic receptors?

A

respond to flutter, stroking movements, and light touch
-phasic receptors (fast adaptation)

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43
Q

what are ruffini corpuscles? tonic or phasic receptors?

A

respond to skin stretch
-tonic receptor (slow adaptation)

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44
Q

what are merkel receptors? tonic or phasic receptors?

A

respond to steady pressure and texture (fingertips)
-tonic receptor (slow adaptation)

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45
Q

what are free nerve endings? tonic or phasic receptors?

A

respond to temp, pain, and hair movement
-can be BOTH tonic & phasic

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46
Q

what are thermoreceptors?

A

type of TONIC free nerve ending
-Cold (less than 37C): majority
-Hot (37C - 45C): anything above 45C activates pain receptors
-no adaptation outside of the 20C-45C range
-use transient receptor potential (TRP) channels

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47
Q

what are TRP channels?

A

cation channel that initiates APs
-used for pain and temp

48
Q

nociceptors use which type of neural cell?

A

free nerve endings

49
Q

what are the two types of primary sensory fibers used for pain? describe them

A

A-delta fibers: small, unmyelinated, FAST pain
C fibers: small, unmyelinated, SLOW pain

50
Q

what are the two types of pain? describe them

A

Fast Pain: A-delta fibers, sharp, localized
Slow Pain: C-fibers, dull, diffuse

51
Q

itch and pain show what type of relationship?

A

antagonistic relationship
-pain can decrease itch sensation (EX: bug bite)

52
Q

where does the primary sensory neuron go to during nociception?

A

dorsal horn of the spinal cord

53
Q

what are the two ways the primary sensory neurons enter the spinal cord during nociception?

A

protective spinals reflex
-coordinated entirely in the spinal cord
-withdrawal reflex (move hand to hot stove)

ascending pathway to cerebral cortex
-somatosensory pathway
-able to consciously feel pain (emotional distress)

54
Q

what are some examples of chemical modulators of nociception?

A

histamine, prostaglandins, serotonin, substance P

55
Q

what is inflammatory pain?

A

increased sensitivity to pain at damaged tissue

56
Q

are there pain receptors in the CNS?

A

NO!
-found in skin, joints, muscles, bones, internal organs

57
Q

where does pain modulation occur at?

A

-descending pathways from thalamus
-inhibits in dorsal horn before reaching ascending spinal tracts

58
Q

what is the gate control theory?

A

A-beta fibers (lg, myelinated) synapsing w/ inhibitory interneurons to enhance it’s activity
-activated through mechanical stimuli such as rubbing your elbow when you have pain

59
Q

what do exogenous substances (drugs) do to modulate pain?

A

slow pain transmission

60
Q

what do endogenous substances (opioid system) do to modulate pain?

A

decrease NT release
-endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphins

61
Q

what is the oldest sense?

A

olfaction

62
Q

which cranial nerves does olfaction use?

A

CN1 (olfaction nerve)

63
Q

does olfaction use a separate receptor cell?

A

NO!

64
Q

what is the olfactory pathway?

A
  1. olfactory neuron extends out from olfactory epithelium and binds odor through a GRCP (1°)
  2. activates G(olf)
  3. increases cAMP, opens cation channels (depolarization)
  4. AP sent along CN1
  5. olfactory bulb (2°)
  6. 2° goes along olfactory tract
  7. olfactory cortex (temporal lobe)
  8. cerebral cortex & limbic system
65
Q

what are the five taste sensations? which types of molecules activate them?

A

sweet: glucose
sour: H+ (acidic)
salty: Na+
bitter: alkaline (basic)
umami: glutamate

66
Q

which taste sensations use a type 2 TRC?

A

sweet, bitter, umami

67
Q

which taste sensation uses a type 3 TRC?

A

sour

68
Q

what is the gustatory pathway?

A
  1. TRC in the taste buds binds taste sensation
  2. binds to GPCR
  3. Type 2 releases ATP, Type 3 releases serotonin
  4. activates 1°
  5. sends APs down axons that form CN7, 9, 10
  6. medulla (2°)
  7. thalamus (3°)
  8. gustatory cortex (insula, b/w frontal & temporal lobes)
69
Q

what are the parts in the external ear?

A

pinna -> tympanic membrane

70
Q

what are the parts in the middle ear?

A

tympanic membrane -> oval window
-three bones are here

71
Q

what are the parts of the inner ear?

A

oval window -> the rest of the ear

72
Q

how are sound waves coded for pitch?

A

frequency
-high: hair cells closest to oval window are bent (fast vibrations)
-low: hair cells closest to helicotrema are bent (slow vibrations)

73
Q

how are sound waves coded for loudness?

A

amplitude
-more hair cells activated = louder the sound

74
Q

what is the hearing pathway?

A
  1. sound enters ear canal
  2. sound wave hits tympanic MB, it vibrates
  3. auditory osscles (malleus, incus, stapes) amplifies sound
  4. oval window vibrates, creating waves in the cochlea
  5. perilymph in vestibular duct
  6. endolymph (high in K+) in cochlear duct causes basilar membrane to shift hair cells against tectorial membrane
  7. release NT
  8. AP acts on 1° neurons to form CN8
  9. medulla (2°)
  10. midbrain (3°)
  11. thalamus
  12. auditory cortex (temporal lobe)
75
Q

when the hair cells bend during the shifting of the basilar MB and tectorial MB, what causes a depolarization? hyperpolarization?

A

shift towards tallest hair cell -> depolarization (increase NT)

shift away from tallest hair cell -> hyperpolarization

76
Q

what is equilibrium mediated by?

A

the hair cells in the vestibular apparatus

77
Q

what part of the hair cell determines if it depolarizes or hyperpolarizes during equilibrium? explain

A

tallest part of hair cell = kinocilium
-bending towards kinocilium: depolarization
-bending away from kinocilium: hyperpolarizatoin

78
Q

what do the semicircular canals do?

A

detect rotational movement
-horizontal canal, posterior canal, superior canal

79
Q

what does the horizontal canal detect?

A

turning around an axis
-figure skater

80
Q

what does the posterior canal detect?

A

left to right motion
-cartwheel

81
Q

what does the superior canal detect?

A

forward & backward motion
-somersault

82
Q

what does the otolith organ do?

A

detects linear movement / acceleration
-saccule, utricle

83
Q

what does the saccule detect?

A

vertical drop
-rollercoaster
-arranged vertially

84
Q

what does the utricle detect?

A

forward & backward acceleration, head tilt
-arranged horizontally

85
Q

what is the ampula?

A

chamber at end of each semicircular canal
-contains the crista, hair cells, and cupula (gelatinous mass)
-full of endolymph
-endolymp moves the cupula

86
Q

what is the macula?

A

utricle and saccule
-contain hair cells
-otolith membrane (gelatinous mass)
-otoliths = protein particles and calcium carbonate (create some weight in gelatinous mass)

87
Q

what is the equilibrium pathway?

A
  1. movement of head causes endolymph / fluid to move
  2. fluid initially goes opposite direction, then same direction (inertia)
  3. cupula shifts causing hair cells to bend
  4. depolarization causes NT release
  5. vestibular branch of CN8 (1°)
  6. cerebellum (terminates) or goes to the medulla
  7. medulla goes to the reticular formation
  8. thalamus
  9. motor cortex (frontal lobe)
88
Q

what is the orbit?

A

bony cavity where the eyes sit

89
Q

how many different muscles are used in the eye?

A

6

90
Q

what is the pupil?

A

where light enters and changes size
-can determine depth of field

91
Q

what is the iris?

A

surrounds the eye, pigmented

92
Q

what is the lens?

A

light refraction to bend light to a focal point on the retina
-biconvex shaped
-separated the two chambers of the eye (vitreous chamber, aqueous humor)

93
Q

what is the retina?

A

contains photoreceptors to start phototransduction
-optic disk, fovea/macula

94
Q

what is the optic disk?

A

where CN2 exits & blood vessels enter & exit
-lacks photoreceptors creating a BLIND SPOT

95
Q

what is the fovea/macula?

A

where light is focused on the retina
-gives high acuity vision (detailed, focused)
-high concentration of CONES

96
Q

what do the circular pupillary sphincter muscles do?

A

pupil constriction (smaller)
-parasympathetic NS

97
Q

what do radial / dilator muscles do?

A

pupil dilation (larger)
-sympathetic NS

98
Q

what do ciliary muscles do?

A

lens shape, lens accommodation
-autonomic NS

99
Q

what does a flat & elongated lens shape mean?

A

more than 20ft away
-suspensory ligaments are tight
-ciliary muscles are relaxed

100
Q

what does a round & short lens shape mean?

A

less than 20ft away
-suspensory ligaments are less tense
-ciliary muscles are contracted

101
Q

what is the visual pathway?

A
  1. light enters cornea
  2. pupil controls amount of light that enters (changes size)
  3. lens refracts light to a single focal point
  4. focal point of light hits the fovea / macula of retina
  5. phototransduction (photoreceptors)
  6. CN2 exits and goes to optic chiasm (1°)
  7. lateral geniculate body of thalamus (2°)
  8. visual cortex (occipital lobe)
102
Q

what is the pupillary reflex?

A

signals sent that are separate from the normal pathway
1. CN2
2. optic chiasm
3. LG-B of thalamus
4. midbrain
5. CN3 sends info back to pupil to constrict or dilate

103
Q

what are rods?

A

active in low light (nighttime)
-B&W
-majority (20:1)

104
Q

what are cones?

A

active in high light (daytime)
-color (red, blue, green)

105
Q

is there a lot of divergence or convergence during phototransduction?

A

convergence!

106
Q

what is the rod pathway in the dark? (only the photoreceptor part)

A
  1. rhodopsin inactive (opsin + retinal (vit. A))
  2. transducin (G-protein) inactive
  3. CNG channels open, cGMP high
  4. Na+ and K+ enter, depolarizes
  5. high glutamate release
107
Q

what is the rod pathway in the light? (only the photoreceptor part)

A
  1. rhodopsin active
  2. transductin active
  3. CNG channel close, cGMP low
  4. K+ exits, hyperpolarization
  5. low glutamate release
108
Q

what types of receptors do ON-bipolar cells use? when are they activated, light or dark?

A

metabotropic receptors
-activated in the light
-glutamate is inhibitory

109
Q

what types of receptors do OFF-bipolar cells use? when are they activated, light or dark?

A

ionotropic receptors
-activated in the dark
-glutamate is excitatory

110
Q

what happens to the ON and OFF bipolar cells when glutamate is high?

A

ON: glutamate inhibits, HYPERPOLARIZES
OFF: glutamate opens cation channels, DEPOLARIZES
-activated

111
Q

what happens to the ON and OFF bipolar cells when glutamate is low?

A

ON: no inhibition, DEPOLARIZES
OFF: glutamate can’t bind, channels close, HYPERPOLARIZES

112
Q

what do ganglion cells do for vision?

A

contrast (shades)

113
Q

what is the On-center / Off-surround ganglion cell?

A

-fires when it hits center
-if it hits surround, ganglion is inhibited

114
Q

what is the Off-center / On-surround ganglion cell?

A

-fires when it hits surround
-if it hits center, ganglion is inhibited

115
Q

what is the difference b/w the binocular zone and monocular zone?

A

binocular: 3D images, depth perception, visual fields overlap
monocular: 2D, visual fields don’t overlap

Integrated Physiology (23 decks)

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