Exam 4 Flashcards
(251 cards)
1
Q
Antigen
A
A toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body especially the production of antibodies
2
Q
Autoimmune disease
A
A disease in which the body produces antibodies that attack its own tissues leading to the deterioration and in some cases to the distraction of such tissue
3
Q
Innate immunity
A
A type of immunity that is non-specific and response to all foreign material
4
Q
Adaptive immunity
A
A specific type of immunity that responds to one antigen memory
5
Q
Two types of immunity?
A
- Innate immunity
2. Adaptive immunity
6
Q
Mechanical and chemical barriers that protect the body
A
- skin
- mucus membranes
- stomach acid
- flow of tears
- Flow of urine
- coughing and sneezing
7
Q
Skin
A
Skin is a barrier for entry of bacteria and viruses
8
Q
Mucus membranes
A
Mucous membranes trap particles and move them to the surface
9
Q
Stomach acid
A
Stomach acid kills bacteria and viruses stomach acid has a low pH
10
Q
Flow of tears
A
The flow of tears removes bacteria and viruses
11
Q
Flow of urine
A
The flow of urine removes bacteria and viruses
12
Q
Coughing and sneezing
A
Coughing and sneezing and removes bacteria and viruses
13
Q
Interferon
A
And interferon is a protein released by animal cells usually in response to the entry of a virus that has The property of inhibiting virus replication
14
Q
How does a virus reproduce?
A
- The virus attaches to a cell
- The virus injects its DNA into the cell
- The cell begins to produce viruses
- when the cell becomes full of viruses it bursts
- The viruses then infect New cells
15
Q
How interferons work?
A
The infected cell makes interferons to signal the neighboring cells to start producing anti-viral proteins
16
Q
Where do white blood cells develop?
A
White blood cells develop in red bone marrow
17
Q
Phagocytes
A
A type of White blood cell that Engulfs bacteria also known as big eater cells
18
Q
White blood cells produce what?
A
- Antibodies
2. Histamines which signal infection
19
Q
Types of white blood cells
A
- neutrophils
- monocytes (macrophages)
- basophils and mast cells
- Eosinophils
- natural killer cells
20
Q
Neutrophils
A
Neutrophils are small phagocytes 125 billion are dumped into our intestines daily. Neutrophils migrate to infected tissue and release lysozymes which are enzymes
21
Q
Monocytes (macrophages)
A
Monocytes are large Phagocytes which migrate to infected tissue. Monocytes produce complement proteins and interferons they are found in the lymph nodes
22
Q
Basophils and mast cells
A
When a mast cell is circulating it is called a basophil when a mast cell is down in the tissue it is called a mast cell. Mast cells produce histamines another signals
23
Q
Eosinophils
A
Eosinophils migrate to tissues and breakdown histamines. They also secrete enzymes to kill parasites usually larger parasites like worms
24
Q
Natural killer cells
A
Natural killer cells are also called lymphocytes they recognize cancer and virus-infected cells. They sit next to an infected sell and release chemicals to Lyse the cell
25
Steps to inflammatory response activation
1. The tissue is damaged and bacteria enter
2. Chemical signals and histamines are released by basophil mast cells
3. Chemical signals lead to increased blood flow, chemotaxis and, vascular permeability
4. neutrophils and other white blood cells like macrophages migrate to the injury site and remove pathogens by Phagocytosis
5. macro phages secrete hormones called cytokines that attract immune system cells to the site and activate cells involved into tissue repair
6. Inflammatory response continues until the foreign material is eliminated and the wound is repaired
26
Inflammatory response feedback loop
1. White blood cells come to injury site
2. White blood cells destroy bacteria until bacteria are gone
3. If bacteria are still present more chemical signals are sent out to attract more white blood cells until no bacteria are left
4. if some bacteria remain the cycle repeats until all bacteria are gone
27
Functions of the lymphatic system
1. Fluid balance- 10% of fluid from the blood returns as lymph
2. Fat absorption and transport- starts transport from intestine to veins
3. Immune defense- fights disease and infection
28
Lymph vessels
Lymph vessels are found near arteries and veins. Lymph vessles have valves.
29
Lymphatic ducts
1. Thoracic duct
2. Jugular trunk
3. Subclavian trunk
4. Bronchomediastinal trunk
30
Thoracic duct
Drains lymph from lumbar trunks and, lower body lumbar region and legs
31
Jugular trunk
Drains lymph from head and neck
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Subclavian trunk
Drains lymph from arms and superficial thoracic
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Bronchomediastinal trunk
Drains lymph from thorax
34
Parts of a lymph node
1. Afferent duct
2. Nodule
3. Germinal center
4. Efferent duct
5. Capsule
6. Trabecula
7. Diffuse tissue
8. Medullary sinus
9. Cortical sinus
35
Capsule
The capsule of a lymph node is the outer layer which is made of dense irregular connective tissue
36
Trabeculae
Made of dense irregular connective tissue you seen as light colored open spaces
37
afferent flow
Flow into the lymph node
38
Efferent flow
Flow out of the lymph node
39
Sinuses
Open areas for flow of lymph
40
Where are macrophages found in lymph nodes?
Lining the sinuses
41
Where are lymphocytes found in a lymph node?
In the lymphatic nodules
42
What is the purpose of the germinal center of the lymph node?
It serves as the site of mitosis for lymphocytes
43
Medullary cord
Is made of diffuse lymphatic tissue
44
Functions of the immune system?
1. Recognition of self; kill everything else
2. Innate immunity: non specific immunity, responds to all foreign material
3. Adaptive immunity; specific responds to one antigen memory
45
unencapsulated lymphatic tissue
Lymphatic tissue that is not surrounded by connective tissue and
46
Diffuse lymphatic tissue
Loose collection of lymphatic tissue
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Lymphatic nodules
Dense arrangement of the lymphatic tissue
48
Tonsils
Large collection of nodules
49
Macosa associated lymphoid tissue is found in the lining of
Digestive system
Reproductive system
Urinary system
Respiratory system
50
Types of tonsils
1. Pharyngeal tonsils- found on roof of mouth
2. Palatine tonsils- found on sides of mouth
3. Lingual tonsils- found on back of tongue
51
Encapsulated to lymphatic tissue
Lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by connective tissue
52
What are the three different encapsulated lymphatic tissues?
1. Lymph nodes
2. spleen
3. Thymus
53
What is the function of Lymph nodes?
Lymph nodes filter bacteria from lymph
54
What are the three functions of the spleen?
1. Destroys old red blood cells
2. Part of the immune system
3. Small blood reservoir
55
What is the function of the thymus?
Site of T-lymphocyte maturation
56
What is the area of the spleen where the arteries and veins attach?
Hilum
57
What are the components of the spleen?
1. Artery
2. Vein
3. White pulp
4. Red pulp
5. Trabecula
6. Capsule
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White pulp
Contains lymphatic nodules
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Red pulp
Contains venous sinuses and has open flow
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Splenic cord
Contains reticular cells, macrophages and removes old red blood cells
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Fast flow
Directly from arteries into Venous sinuses. About 88% of flow in spleen takes only a few seconds
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Intermediate flow
Percolates through splenic cord. 10% of flow and spleen takes a few minutes
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Slow flow
Percolates through splenic cord 2% of flow in spleen takes an hour
64
Components of the thymus
1. Capsule
2. Trabecula
3. Cortex
4. Medulla
65
Types of lymphocytes
1. Natural killer cells
2. B lymphocytes
3. T lymphocytes
66
Natural killer cells
Attack and kill cells displaying signs of not being part of the organism
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B Lymphocytes
Responsible for antibody production
68
T lymphocytes
Attack cells showing specific antigens
69
What is Costimulation?
In some immune responses a B cell or a T-cell becomes activated when an antigen or nonself cell binds to an activation then initiates proliferation and most immune responses however activation requires the presence of a Costimulator
70
What is the cytokine?
Any of a number of substances such as the interferon interleukin and growth factors that are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells
71
Process of costimulation
1. A bacteria or virus enters the body
2. Proteins combine with MHC II
3. Proteins are displayed on the surface
4. antigen persists
5. Helper T cells proliferate
6. The cloned T cells recognize the antigen
72
Antibody production
1. Clone line of B cells proliferate
| 2. And produce antibodies to a specific antigen
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Primary response
The response that the immune system displays when first exposed to an antigen memory cells are created and antibodies are created for the next exposure
74
Secondary response
An integrated bodily response to an antigen especially one mediated by lymphocytes and involving recognition of antigens by specific antibodies or previously sensitized lymphocytes. Secondary responses are generally stronger and faster then primary responses
75
What are the functions of the digestive system?
1. Ingestion
2. Secretion
3. Mixing and propulsion
4. Digestion
5. Absorption
6. Defecation
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Ingestion
Eating and drinking
77
Secretion
Cells produce products and dump them into the lumen
78
Mixing and propulsion
Also known as peristalsis
79
What are the two types of digestion?
1. Mechanical
| 2. Chemical
80
Mechanical digestion
Chewing and mixing
81
Chemical digestion
Enzymes break down food molecules
82
Absorption
Taking in monomers
83
Monomer
A simple molecule of relatively low molecular weight capable of reacting to form by repetition a polymer. some basic unit of a molecule either the molecule itself or some structural or functional subunit of it. Basic nutritional unit of a food item
84
Defecation
Eliminating waste
85
Components of the digestive system
1. Mouth
2. Salivary glands
3. Pharynx
4. Esophagus
5. Stomach
6. Liver
7. Pancreas
8. Gallbladder
9. Large intestine
10. Small intestine
11. Cecum
12. Appendix
13. Rectum
14. Anus
86
Abdominal regions
1. Right hypochondriac region
2. Right lumbar region
3. Right iliac/inguinal region
4. Epigastric region
5. Umbilical region
6. Hypogastric/pubic region
7. Left hypochondriac region
8. Left lumbar region
9. Left iliac/inguinal region
87
Parts of the peritoneum
1. Falciform ligament
2. Parietal peritoneum
3. Greater omentum
4. Bursa
5. Small instestine
6. Urinary bladder
7. Corrinary ligament
8. liver
9. Lesser omentum
10. stomach
11. Pancreas
12. Duodenum
13. Mesocolon
14. Transverse colon
15. Mesentary
16. Rectum
88
Layers of the G.I. tract
1. Lumen
2. Mucosa
3. submucosa
4. Muscularis
5. Serosa
89
Components of the Mucosa
1. Epithelium: interlining toward Lumen mucous membrane
2. Lamina Propria: areolar connective tissue, lymphatic connective tissue
3. Muscularis mucosa: in layer of smooth muscle
90
Components of submucosa
1. Areolar CT
2. Blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessles
3. Connects mucosa to muscles
4. Contains some glands in intestine
91
Components of muscularis
Contains thick layers of muscle contains skeletal muscle found in mouth pharynx and esophagus smooth muscle which is found in a esophagus stomach and intestines
92
Components of serosa
Contains areolar connective tissue and epithelium also has serous membrane continues with membranes that suspend the organs
93
Components of the mouth
1. Superior lip
2. Fauces
3. Tongue
4. Gums
5. Vestibule
6. Inferior lip
7. Cheek
8. Uvula
9. Soft palate
10. Hard palate
11. Teeth
94
3 types of salivary glands
1. Parotid
2. Sublingual
3. Submandibular
95
Saliva
Contains water mucous digestive enzymes it lubricates the food and starts chemical digestion
96
Parotid glands
Near ear, makes watery solution that contains high amounts of the enzyme amylase
97
Submandibular glands
Located inside mandible creates thick mucus with some Amylase
98
Sublingual glands
Located below the tongue synthesizes very thick mostly mucousy saliva
99
Lingual glands on tongue
Creates lingual lipase
100
Parts of the tooth
1. Enamel
2. Gingiva
3. Dentin
4. Pulp
5. Root canal
6. Cementum
7. periodintal ligaments
8. Bone
9. Apical foramen
10. Crown
11. Neck
12. Root
101
The difference between deciduous and permanent teeth
Deciduous teeth also known as milk teeth erupt from a child to gums. They are organized by alphabet all the way up to the letter T. Deciduous teeth include incisors canine and molars. Permanent teeth are organized by Numbers all the way from 1 to 32. Permanent teeth include incisors premolars molars and canine. Deciduous teeth do not have premolars
102
Structures of the pharynx and near the pharynx
1. Uvula
2. Pharynx
3. Epiglottis
4. Trachea
5. Esophagus
103
The process of swallowing
1. The tongue forces food to the back of the mouth
2. The food pushes against the soft palate the soft palate in the uvula rise blocking the opening to the nasopharynx
3. as the food moves down he comes in contact with epiglottis
4. The epiglottis bends to cover the glottis which is the opening to the trachea
5. Food travels down the esophagus by Peristalsis into the stomach
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Bolus
A soft roundish mass or lump especially of chewed food
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Oropharynx
The part of the pharynx between the soft palate and upper edge of the epiglottis
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Larynx
A muscular and cartilaginous structure aligned with mucous membrane at the upper part of the trachea and humans in which the vocal chords are located
107
Superior pharyngeal constrictor
A muscle of the pharynx that is involved in swallowing
108
Middle pharyngeal constrictor
A muscle that is located in East superior pharyngeal constrictor also responsible for swallowing
109
Lower esophageal sphincter
Sphincter located at the beginning of the stomach near cardiac region
110
Parts of the stomach
1. Fundus
2. Body
3. Cardia
4. Lesser curvature
5. Greater curvature
6. Rugae
7. Pyloric sphincter
8. Pyloric region
9. duodenum
111
Histology of stomach
1. gastric pit
2. Goblet cell
3. Parietal cell
4. Chief cell
5. G cell
6. Mucosa
7. Submucosa
8. Muscularis
9. Serosa
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Goblet cell function
Creates mucous to protect stomach lining
113
Mucous neck cells
Create mucous to protect stomach lining
114
Parietal cells
Produce hydrochloric acid
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Chief cells
Are responsible for the production of digestive enzymes
116
G cells
Produce a hormone called gastrin
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Gastrin
A hormone that stimulates the secretion of gastric juice
118
Parts of the gallbladder
1. Cystic duct
2. Common bile duct
3. Accessory pancreatic duct
119
Parts of the pancreas
1. Pancreatic duct
2. Pancreas
3. Hepatopancreatic ampula
120
Lobes of the liver
1. Caudate lobe
2. Left lobe
3. Quadrate lobe
4. Right lobe
5. Gall bladder
121
The liver has
Bile ducts and hepatic sinusoids
122
The pancreas has
Acini cells, pancreatic islets, To pancreatic duct
123
What happens in the duodenum?
After food move some of the stomach to the duodenum the first section of the intestine it combines with bile from the call Bladder and digestive juices from the pancreas the intestines contract and relax through peristaltic action to mix the substances with food to promote digestion
124
Parts of the small intestine
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
125
Histology of the small intestine
1. Villus
2. intestinal glands
3. Blood vessels
4. Lymphatic vessles
126
Cells of the small intestine
1. Absorptive cell: absorbs nutrients
2. Goblet cells: secretes mucous
3. Enterendocrine cells: secretes hormones
4. Paneth cells: involved in immune response
127
Parts of large intestine
1. appendix
2. cecum
3. Ascending colon
4. Hepatic flexure
5. Transverse colon
6. Splenic flexure
7. Descending colon
8. Haustra
9. Sigmoid colon
10. Rectum
11. Anal canal and sphincter
128
Functions of large intestine
1. Absorption of water
| 2. Formation of feces via symbiotic bacteria, haustral churning (peristalsis), mass peristalsis
129
How does defecation occur?
1. Mass peristalsis stretches the rectum
2. Longitudinal rectal muscles contract
3. Internal sphincter opens (involuntary)
4. We contract abdominal muscles
5. We open our internal sphincter (voluntarily)
6. Defecation
130
Functions of the respiratory system
1. Gas exchange
2. Regulates pH
3. Voice
4. Olfactory sense
5. Protection against microorganisms
131
Parts of the respiratory system
1. Nasal cavity
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
3. Trachea
4. Bronchi
5. Lungs
132
Parts of the nasal cavity
1. Nasopharynx
2. Cribriform plate
3. Concha
4. Meatus
5. Vestibule
6. Naris
133
How the nasal cavity works
Air flows through the Naris to the vestibule it is then forced up to the olfactory receptors through the cribriform plate it then flows through the Meatus between the Concha. Turbulence makes the particles hit the mucus membranes and it then moves into the nasopharynx
134
Features of the pharynx
The pharynx is the area where the tubes cross.
1. Nasopharynx
2. Soft palate
3. Oral cavity
4. Pharynx
5. Epiglottis
6. Glottis
7. Esophagus
135
What happens during swallowing
1. The soft palate in the uvula block the opening to the nasopharynx
2. The epiglottis bends down and blocks the glottis which is the opening to the trachea
136
Features of the larynx
1. Epiglottis
2. Thyroid cartilage
3. Arytenoid cartilage
4. Cricoid cartilage
5. Tracheal cartilage
137
What is the position of the vocal chords when breathing?
Open
138
What is the position of the vocal chords when speaking?
Closed
139
Only the interior part of the vocal chords vibrate during what types of sound?
High pitched
140
More of the vocal cords are used to create...
Lower pitched sounds
141
The trachealis muscle is located
Anterior to the esophagus and posterior to the trachea
142
The tracheal mucous membrane
Goblet cells produce mucus which captures dirt and bacteria the cilia on the pseudostratified cells moves the particles out of the body
143
Components of the tracheobronchial tree
1. Trachea
2. Primary bronchus
3. Secondary bronchus
4. Tertiary Bronchus
5. Bronchiole
6. Terminal bronchioles
144
The conducting zone of the Tracheobronchial tree
Responsible for the movement of air starts at trachea and ends at terminal bronchioles
145
Respiratory zone of tracheobronchial tree
Is responsible for gas exchange begins at terminal bronchioles and ends at aveoli
146
Respiratory zone
Terminal bronchial, alveolar ducts and Aveoli
147
Gas exchange in aveoli
High O2 and low co2 inside aveoli, low O2 and high co2 outside of aveoli
148
Anatomy of the lung
1. Apex
2. Hilum
3. Cardiac notch
4. Base
149
Pleura membranes
Parietal pleura: covers wall of thoracic cavity
Visceral pleura: covers the lungs
Mediastinum: separates right and left lungs; contains heart, esophagus, trachea, etc
150
What are the muscles of breathing in?
external intercostals: pulls ribs up
Pectoralis minor: pulls ribs up
Diaphragm: expands thoracic cavity
151
What are the muscles of breathing out?
Internal intercostals: pull ribs down
Abdominal muscles: compresses abdomen and pushes on thoracic cavity
152
Ventilation (pressure differences) of lungs
Air flows from high-pressure to low-pressure
When the thorax expands pressure decreases and air flows in
When the thorax compresses pressure increases and air flows out
153
How does the lung recoil?
The Aveoli get smaller as air flows out
Elastic fibers provide stretching and recoil
Surface tension of water also causes recoil surfactants (lipoproteins) reduce this tension and prevents collapse of lung
154
High compliance
High compliance: breakdown of elastic tissue in the lung;expands to easily; example emphysema
155
Compliance (lung) def.
Ease of expansion
156
Low compliance
Inelastic fibers in the lung; lung does not expand easily; example pulmonary fibrosis
157
Controlled breathing
Controlled breathing is done through voluntary control and involuntary control
158
Voluntary control of breathing
Apnea: holding your breath
| Hyperventilating
159
Involuntary control breathing
Holding your breath until you faint
| And then beginning to breathe again
160
Breathing is controlled by
Medulla in the brain
Carotid artery
Stretch receptors in lungs
Muscles and joints
Pain receptors
161
How does the medulla control breathing?
Low pH which is acidic and high CO2 stimulate breathing
162
How does the carotid artery control breathing?
Low pH high carbon dioxide and low oxygen
163
How do the stretch receptors in the lungs control breathing?
They receive information about the status of your lung you don't breathe on expanded lung
164
How do muscles and joints control breathing?
Muscle contractions directly stimulate breathing
165
How do you pain receptors control breathing?
Paint stimulates breathing
166
Functions of the urinary system
Excretion of waste products
Regulation of blood volume and blood pressure
Regulation of the concentration of solutes in the blood
Regulation of extracellular pH
Regulation of red blood cell production
Vitamin D synthesis
167
Gross anatomy of the urinary system
Renal artery and vein
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
168
Components of the kidney
Renal capsule
Cortex
Medulla
Major calyx
Renal artery
Renal vein
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Minor calyces
Renal pyramid
Renal column
Medullary rays
169
What is the functional unit of the kidney?
The nephron
170
Components of the nephron
Proximal convoluted tubule
Renal corpuscle
Arcuate artery+ vein
Distal convoluted tubule
Loop of henle
Collecting duct
Vasa recta
171
Components of the renal corpuscle
Bowmans capsule
Glomerulus
Capillary
172
Where does filtration take place?
Renal corpuscle
173
Parts involved in filtration
Filtration slit
Podocyte
Basement membrane
Fenestra (holes) in capillary
174
Molecules less then _______ can pass through the filter
7nm
175
Proximal tube
Most of the reabsorption and secretion takes place in the proximal tubule
176
What is the histology of the proximal tube?
The cells of the proximal to contain micro really to increase the surface area of the cell membrane (area limits movement)
177
What happens at the loop of henle?
The reabsorption of water
178
What are the two types of nephrons?
Cortical (85%)
Juxtamedullsry (15%)
179
The descending loop of the nephron contains
Water and solutes
180
The sending thin loop of the nephron contains
Solutes
181
The sending thick loop of the nephron is responsible for
Active transport of solutes out
182
Distal tube
Sodium is reabsorbed by active transport
Calcium and potassium are you absorbed through active transport
Calcium and potassium are you absorbed through facilitated diffusion
183
The collecting duct of the nephron is responsible for
Rehab sorption of water
urine concentration
184
Parts of the nephron and Bowmans capsule responsible for regulating blood pressure
Juxtaglomerular cells
Afferent arteriole
Glomerulus
Macula densa
Distal tube
Efferent arteriole
185
The urinary bladder and ureters contain
Stretch receptors
transitional epithelium
smooth muscle
186
Flow of urine out of the body
Urine is created in the kidneys flows down the ureters into urinary bladder goes through the internal urethral sphincter and out of the external urethral sphincter her into the urethra and out of the body
187
Unique features of transitional epithelium
Transitional epithelium stretches and the cells change shape
188
Unique characteristic of ureter
Folding and transitional epithelium allow stretch for pulses of urine
189
Empty bladder
During the relaxed filling state of the bladder, input from higher CNS to the spinal cord sends a tonic discharge via motor neuron telling the external sphincter (skeletal muscle) to stay contracted
190
When the bladder is full
Stretch receptors report a full bladder via sensory neuron to the spinal cord and from the spinal cord and parasympathetic their own fires to the bladder. higher CNS input may facilitate or inhibit reflex. The tonic discharge is inhibited on the motor neuron responsible for keeping the external sphincter closed
191
Functions of the male reproductive system
Production and delivery of sperm, by testes, scrotum and epididymis.
Male ducts assist delivery of sperm to the surface and accessory glands create substances to assist the sperm
192
Components of the scrotum
Spermatic cord
Vas deferens
Creamaster muscle
Scrotal septum
Epididymis
Testes
Dartos muscle
193
What is the function of the scrotum and why are testicles outside the body?
Sperm mature at about 34°C muscles of the scrotum raise and lower the testicles to regulate temperature
194
Components of the testes
Spermatic cord
Blood vessels and nerves
Epididymis
Tunica vaginalis
Tunica albuginea
Lobule
Septum
Vas deferens
Efferent duct
Seminiferous tubule
Rete testes
Straight tubule
Ductus epididymis
195
Sertoli cell
Elongated cells found in the seminiferous tubule's of the testes apparently the nourish the spermatids
196
Spermatids
A cell derived from a secondary spermatocyte by fission and developing into a spermatozoon
197
Secondary spermatocyte
He sold produced by mitotic division of the primary spermatocytes in which gives rise to the spermatid
198
Primary spermatocytes
The spermatocyte arising by a growth phase from a spermatogoniumv
199
Spermatogonium
Any of the cells of the gonads in the male organisms that are the progenitors of spermatocytes also called spermatoblats
200
Spermatozoon
A mature male germ cell
201
Leydig cell
Interstitial cells of the testes which secrete testosterone
202
What are the components of spermatogenesis?
spermatids
Secondary spermatocyte
Primary spermatocytes
Spermatogonium
Basement membrane
Sertoli cells
Leydig cell
203
Blood testes barrier
Prevents immune system from attacking and destroying sperm cells
204
The process of spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process in which spermatozoa are produced from mail primordial germ cells by way of mitosis and meiosis.
The initial cells which start the process are called spermatogonia. The spermatogonium yield primary spermatocytes by mitosis. The primary spermatocytes divides mitotically in the first meiosis into two secondary spermatocytes each secondary spermatocyte divides into two spermatids in meiosis part 2. The spermatids develop into mature spermatozoa also known as sperm cells
205
Cytoplasmic bridge
Also known as intercellular bridge. It is a structure that connects adjacent cells are made of cytoplasmic strands
206
Components of the sperm cell
Acrosome
Nucleus
Neck
Mitochondria
Head
Tail
207
Acrosome
The Like membrane bound structure covering the anterior portion of the head of the sperm it contains enzymes for penetrating the egg cell
208
How sperm travels through the mail reproductive organs
Testes
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Seminal vesicle
Ejaculatory duct
Prostate
Bulbourethral
Urethra
Penis
209
What hormones control the formation of sperm?
Gonadotrophin releasing hormone GnRH made in the thalamus
Luteinizing hormone LH and follicular stimulating hormone FSH both produced in the pituitary gland
Testosterone produced by Leydig cells
Inhibin and androgen binding protein or ABP produced by Sertoli cells
210
How do hormones control the formation of sperm?
Gonadotrophin releasing normal stimulates the release of lien in 19 hormone and follicular stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone stimulates the release of testosterone while FSH stimulates spermatogenesis
Testosterone inhibits LH
Inhibin inhibits FSH
211
Ducts of the male reproductive organ
Seminiferous tubule
Straight tubules
Rete testes
Efferent duct
Ductus epididymis
Vas deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Urethra
212
Seminiferous tubule
The site of spermatogenesis
213
Straight tubule
The Continuation of the seminiferous tubule contorts which street is just before entering the mediastinum to form their Rete testis
214
Rete testes
The network of canals at the and of the seminiferous tubules
215
Ductus epididymis
Site of sperm maturation
216
Vas deferens
Stores sperm
217
Ejaculatory duct
Where semen comes out
218
Urethra
The membranous canal through which urine is discharged from the bladder and semen is discharged to the exterior of the body
219
Accessory glands of the male reproductive system
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
220
Seminal vesicles
Produces alkaline fluid
Contains fructose
221
Prostate gland
Contains citric acid
222
Bulbourethral gland
Produces alkaline fluid
223
Anatomy of the penis
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral gland
Crus of penis
Bulb of penis
Corpora cavernosa
Corpora spongiosum
Spongy urethra
Corona
Glans penis
224
Components of the female reproductive system
Fundus of uterus
Isthmus of uterine tube
Fimbriae of uterine tube
Uterine cavity
Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium
Internal OS
Cervical canal
Lateral fornix
Rugae
Broad ligament
Body of uterus
Ureter isthmus
Uterosacral ligament
External Os
Vagina
225
Ovarian ligament
Holds ovary in place
226
Broad ligament
Holds uterus in place
227
Suspensory ligament
Holds fallopian tube in place
228
Parts of ovaries and eggs
Primordial follicle
Primary follicle
Secondary follicle
Cortex
Follicular fluid
Mature follicle
Medulla
Corpus luteum
229
Antrum
A fluid filled cavity
230
Parts of an egg and around the egg in the ovary
Antrum
Granulosa cells
Zona pellucida
Oocyte
231
Granulosa cell
A cell lining the vesicular ovarian follicle that becomes a luteal cell after ovulation
232
Zona pellucida
A thick transparent membrane surrounding an egg before it is fertilized. Made of glycoprotein
233
When does egg formation begin?
Before birth
234
The process of oogenesis
Germ cells move to ovary, and become oogonia (stem cells)
Oogonia divide to produce millions of germ cells
Most germ cells degenerate, at Bert's a female has 200,000 to 2,000,000 germ cells at puberty it's only 40,000 and only 400 egg cells reach maturity
235
Corona radiata
Inner layer of granulosa cells
236
Primordial follicle
Oocyte with one layer of follicle cells
237
Primary follicle
Oocyte surrounded by 1-7 layers of granulosa cells. Has a zona pellucida and Corona radiata
238
Secondary follicle
Has an antrum and an internal bulge of granulosa cells
239
Oogenesis
Formation and development of the Ovum
240
Meiosis and oogenesis
Before birth meiosis stops in stage one
Meiosis stage one resumes as follicle develops
Meiosis stage two stops in metaphase (mature follicle)
After fertilization meiosis stage two is complete
241
Parts of the Fallopian tube
Ampula
Infundibulum
242
Infundibulum
A funnel shaped structure
243
Two stratum found in uterus
Stratum functionalis
Stratum basalis
244
What is the function of gonadotrophin releasing hormone in the female cycle?
Stimulates the release of LH and FSH
245
What is the function of follicular stimulating hormone in the female cycle?
Responsible for follicular growth and estrogen release
246
What is the function of Lutinizing hormone in the female cycle?
It is responsible for the development of follicles and estrogen
It is also responsible for ovulation
247
What are the two things needed for sperm production?
FSH and high levels of testosterone
248
GnRH stimulates what?
Release of LH and FSH
249
LH stimulates what
Testosterone production
250
Is testosterone high in the testes?
Because of androgen binding protein and because it is made in the tested
251
What happens when the ducts of male reproductive system get full
Sertoli cells produce inhibin which turns off FSH production
