Learning U1-2-3 Flashcards
(168 cards)
1
Q
What is learning?
A
An enduring change in the mechanisms of behaviour involving specific stimuli and/or responses resulting from prior experience
M. Domjan’s definition highlights that learning is evidenced by a change in behaviour.
2
Q
What must be considered in any systematic effort to understand behaviour?
what are the things you must always think about/include in your analysis
A
What we learn and why we learn it
Understanding these aspects is crucial as many behaviours are results of learning.
3
Q
How does learning facilitate adaptation to one’s environment?
A
By improving the ability to perform necessary biological functions and helping find new food sources
Learning enhances survival and adaptation in changing environments.
4
Q
Can learning result in the reduction or loss of a previously habitual response?
A
Yes, learning can consist of the decrease or loss of a previously common response
Example: Learning not to cross the street with a red light.
5
Q
Does all learning require specialized training?
A
No, not all learning requires specialized training or practice
Much learning occurs naturally through social and physical interactions.
6
Q
What is the difference between learning and performance?
A
Learning is a change in mechanisms of behaviour; performance is an organism’s action at a particular moment
Performance can be influenced by various factors including hunger.
7
Q
What are reflexes?
A
Automatic and involuntary responses of the body to external stimuli
Reflexes occur without conscious thought and are mediated by the nervous system.
8
Q
What is Cartesian dualism?
A
A theory by Descartes that differentiates between involuntary (reflex) and voluntary (conscious intent) behaviour
It suggests that not all actions are the result of free will.
9
Q
What is nativism?
A
The philosophical approach that assumes humans are born with innate ideas independent of personal experience
Descartes believed certain concepts are inherent to all humans.
10
Q
What is empiricism?
A
The philosophical belief that ideas are acquired through experiences after birth, with the mind starting as a clean slate
John Locke was a prominent advocate of empiricism.
11
Q
What is hedonism?
A
A philosophical concept that centers on pleasure and pain as the ultimate determinants of human behaviour
Hobbes proposed that voluntary behaviour is governed by the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain.
12
Q
What does the concept of association in empiricism refer to?
A
The connection between representations of two events, allowing simple sensations to combine into complex ideas
This is fundamental in understanding how experiences form ideas.
13
Q
What is the reflex arc?
A
The basic mechanism underlying most reflexes, consisting of five main components: sensory receptor, afferent pathway, integration center, efferent pathway, and effectors
It describes the process from stimulus detection to response execution.
14
Q
What is the role of the pineal gland according to Descartes?
A
It connects the mind and body, regulating circadian rhythms and producing melatonin
Descartes viewed it as the ‘seat of the soul’.
15
Q
What is the distinction between voluntary and involuntary behaviour?
A
Voluntary behaviour is conscious and deliberate, while involuntary behaviour is automatic and reflexive
This distinction is central to understanding human and animal behaviour.
16
Q
Fill in the blank: Learning can also consist of the _______ or loss of a previously common response.
A
decrease
17
Q
True or False: All behaviours are the result of learning.
A
False
Behaviours can also be influenced by factors like fatigue and physiological states.
18
Q
What is Association?
A
The connection between the representation of two events (2 stimuli or 1 stimulus and 1 response), so the first event activates the representation of the second one.
19
Q
What happens to simple ideas as they combine?
A
Simple ideas combine into more complex ideas via associations.
20
Q
What is mentalism
A
Investigating the contents and workings of the mind
21
Q
What is reflexology
A
Investigates the mechanisms of reflexive behaviour
22
Q
What does Dynamic 1 in the study of Association involve?
A
Word Association Exercise where one word triggers another in a chain of linked thoughts.
23
Q
What is the purpose of Dynamic 2 in the study of Association?
A
To reflect on the ideas, emotions, or concepts evoked by images.
24
Q
According to British empiricism, what are the two sets of rules for establishing associations?
A
Primary and secondary rules.
25
What is the most important primary rule of association proposed by Aristotle?
Contiguity.
26
What does the principle of Contiguity state?
If two events repeatedly occur together in space or time, they will become associated.
27
What does the principle of Similarity state?
Two things will become associated if they are similar.
| eg; all birds have beaks and feathers (features)
28
What does the principle of Contrast state?
Two things will become associated if they have contrasting characteristics.
| Things that are noticably diff from one another are distinguished
29
What are the secondary rules of association?
* Intensity: greater intensity facilitates association.
* Frequency: higher frequency facilitates associations.
30
Who is associated with the study of nonsense syllables?
Hermann Ebbinghaus.
31
What are nonsense syllables
Used to study association and memory. Stronger associations are formed w/ items that are closer together in a list.
32
What is the relationship between the strength of association and training?
Strength of association improves with training.
33
When is material with meaning remembered compared to nonsense syllables?
Material with meaning is remembered 10 times more than nonsense.
34
What is the main finding regarding the position of items on a list?
Closer on the list = stronger association.
35
What did Sechenov propose about stimuli and reflexes?
Stimuli do not always elicit reflex responses directly.
36
What did Pavlov assert about reflexes to stimuli?
Not all reflexes to stimuli are innate; new reflexes can be created by mechanisms of association.
37
What was the principle of Nervism proposed by Pavlov?
All principal physiological functions are governed by the nervous system.
38
What is the relevance of studying nonhuman animals in research?
Research on nonhuman animals informs us about human behaviour and is often easier to control.
39
What ethical dilemma arises in animal research?
Is it justifiable to cause discomfort in nonhuman animals for research?
40
What is comparative psychology
The study of the evolution of the mind
41
What is functional neurology
How the nervous system works
42
According to Darwin, how is the human mind viewed?
The human mind is a product of evolution.
43
Fill in the blank: According to Aristotle, the three principles for establishing associations are ______, ______, and ______.
[Contiguity], [Similarity], [Contrast].
44
What is the nativist/empiricist debate regarding behavior?
The consensus from modern behavioral neuroscience is that the NATIVISTS were closer to the truth than the EMPIRICISTS
## Footnote
This indicates that genetics play a significant role in behavior, but it is also influenced by the environment.
45
How does learning occur according to the nativism position?
We can’t learn just anything—learning is shaped and limited by the systems we're born with.
## Footnote
For example, teaching a dog to sit is easier than teaching a cat due to their inherent behavioral differences.
46
What role do genetics and environment play in intelligence?
Intelligence has a genetic basis, but enriched environments and cognitive stimulation improve intellectual development
## Footnote
A child can reach their maximum intellectual potential with appropriate educational stimuli.
47
What is the difference between genetic determinism and free will?
Genetics can predispose certain behaviors but does not entirely determine human behavior; environment and life experiences also shape behavior
## Footnote
The capacity for choice is significant in shaping behavior.
48
What is the concept of plasticity in behavior?
The brain's plasticity allows adaptation to the environment, helping to overcome genetic predispositions
## Footnote
For instance, the right hemisphere can adapt after damage to the left hemisphere.
49
What is a reflex in the context of elicited behavior?
The reflex is the simplest form of elicited behavior, triggered by specific stimuli in the environment
## Footnote
It involves a stimulus (S) followed by a response (R).
50
What are the components of a reflex?
A reflex involves three neurons: sensory (afferent) neuron, motor (efferent) neuron, and interneuron
## Footnote
Sensory neurons activate motor neurons through interneurons to produce a reflex response.
51
What is the feeding reflex in newborns?
The feeding reflex is an innate response where touching/stroking the face elicits head turning towards the stimulus
## Footnote
This is crucial for feeding, as it involves suckling when an object is in the mouth.
52
Define Modal Action Patterns (MAPs).
MAPs are response sequences specific to species, including behaviors like sexual, territorial, and aggressive actions
## Footnote
They are innate and essential for survival.
53
What are sign stimuli in the context of MAPs?
Sign stimuli are specific stimuli that trigger MAPs, like a mother duck moving that prompts ducklings to follow
## Footnote
These stimuli are crucial for eliciting specific behaviors.
54
What is the difference between appetitive and consummatory behaviors?
Appetitive behaviors help animals find what they need, like food or mates, while consummatory behaviors are the actions that finish the task, like eating or mating.
## Footnote
For example, foraging is appetitive, while eating is consummatory.
55
What is sequential organization of behaviour
Behaviours organized into ordered sequences to achieve a goal or respond to a stimulus - these behaviours follow order and pattern
| Behaviors happen in a set order or pattern to reach a goal or respond to
56
What is habituation?
Habituation is the reduction of an elicited response due to repeated presentations of the stimulus
## Footnote
It demonstrates how responses can decrease with familiarity.
57
What was the finding of Epstein et al. (1992) regarding habituation?
Participants habituated to a taste stimulus showed decreased salivation and taste ratings across trials
## Footnote
This indicated that the elicited response can change with repeated exposure.
58
What is stimulus specificity in habituation?
Habituation is specific to the habituated stimulus, as shown by recovery of response to a different stimulus
## Footnote
For example, habituation to lemon flavor does not affect response to lime.
59
How does attention affect habituation according to Epstein et al. (2005)?
Attention can influence habituation; children distracted during tasks showed less habituation to taste stimuli
## Footnote
This suggests that focusing on non-food cues may help maintain the taste experience.
60
What is the significance of visual attention in infants?
Visual attention is crucial for infants to learn about their environment, measured by how long they look at an object
## Footnote
This includes studying how infants perceive faces before language development.
61
What did Bashinski et al. (1985) conclude about visual attention in infants?
Infants showed initial sensitization to complex stimuli followed by habituation over time
## Footnote
This indicates that infants can distinguish between simple and complex visual stimuli.
62
What is the role of the looking response technique in studying infants?
The looking response technique allows researchers to study psychological processes in infants before language develops
## Footnote
It provides insights into how infants perceive and interact with their environment.
63
What is habituation in the context of visual attention in infants?
A decrease in visual attention to a familiar stimulus after repeated exposure
## Footnote
Infants show reduced looking time to familiar faces compared to new faces.
64
What were the results of the Turati et al. (2008) study on infants?
Infants spent less time looking at familiar faces than novel faces, indicating recognition
## Footnote
This suggests infants can distinguish between different people.
65
What is the startle response?
A sudden jump and tensing of muscles in reaction to a potential attack
## Footnote
It involves eye blinking and is part of defensive behavior.
66
How is the startle response measured in rats?
By using a pressure sensor to record the force exerted when the rat jumps
## Footnote
The jump increases pressure against the floor.
67
What did Leaton (1976) find regarding the startle response in rats?
The startle response decreased with repeated tone presentations but showed spontaneous recovery
## Footnote
This indicates both habituation and recovery after a break.
68
What are the two types of habituation identified in the study of the startle response?
* Long-term habituation
* Short-term habituation
## Footnote
Long-term habituation persists after longer intervals without stimulus, while short-term habituation occurs with closely spaced stimuli.
69
What is sensitization?
An increased response to a stimulus due to a heightened state of arousal
## Footnote
Sensitization can occur in response to stimuli that cause alarm.
70
What did Davis (1974) study in relation to sensitization in rats?
The effect of background noise on the startle response to a loud tone
## Footnote
Rats showed habituation with soft noise and sensitization with loud noise.
71
How does habituation differ from sensitization?
Habituation decreases response to a stimulus, while sensitization increases response
## Footnote
Habituation is stimulus-specific, while sensitization is not.
72
What is the adaptive function of habituation and sensitization?
To prioritize and focus behavior in response to stimuli
## Footnote
Habituation helps ignore benign stimuli, while sensitization focuses attention on important stimuli.
73
What is the Dual-process Theory?
A theory explaining changes in responses to stimuli through habituation and sensitization
## Footnote
It posits that both processes can occur simultaneously and influence behavior.
74
What are the two systems involved in the Dual-process Theory?
* S-R system (for habituation)
* State system (for sensitization)
## Footnote
The S-R system is activated by every stimulus, while the state system responds to arousing events.
75
What is the significance of the opponent process theory?
It explains how emotional responses change over time with repeated experiences
## Footnote
Initial intense emotions may diminish while evolving into a stable relationship.
76
How does drug addiction relate to habituation and sensitization?
Habituation leads to reduced pleasure from a drug, while sensitization increases the craving for it
## Footnote
Users may require higher doses over time due to these processes.
77
What is a key characteristic of reflex responses related to sensitization?
They can become sensitized when the subject is in a heightened state of arousal
## Footnote
This can lead to stronger reactions to stimuli.
78
What are the implications of habituation and sensitization for driving?
Habituation can lead to decreased attention to irrelevant stimuli, while sensitization can heighten awareness of important events
## Footnote
This can affect driver alertness over time.
79
What happens to the intensity of love in romantic relationships over time?
It evolves into a more mature form based on trust, intimacy, and shared complicity.
80
How does the initial experience of drug addiction compare to continued usage?
The initial 'high' is much stronger than the experience with regular usage.
81
What increases as drug usage continues?
The feelings of withdrawal increase.
82
What are the primary effects of drug use?
* Pleasantness * Sedation
83
What are the secondary effects of drug use?
* Irritability * Headaches * Nausea
84
In the context of drug addiction, what is the Opponent Process Theory?
It describes how the emotional response to drugs changes with experience.
85
What happens to the primary response in habitual drug users?
It becomes weaker over time.
86
What happens to the secondary response in habitual drug users?
It becomes stronger over time.
87
True or False: Habitual drinkers experience less severe withdrawal symptoms than naive drinkers.
False
88
What is the relationship between the primary and opponent processes?
The resulting emotional response is the sum of the primary and opponent processes.
89
What occurs during initial exposure to an emotional stimulus for naive drinkers?
The primary process occurs without opposition from the opponent process.
90
What happens to the opponent process after a period of time?
It is triggered by the primary process and counteracts it.
91
What do addicted drug users primarily seek to manage through drug use?
They continue to take drugs to reduce aversive effects rather than pursue pleasurable effects.
92
Fill in the blank: The initial emotional response a stimulus elicits is the ______ process.
[primary]
93
Fill in the blank: The counter-acting emotional response triggered by the primary process is the ______ process.
[opponent]
94
What is the effect of repeated exposure to a stimulus on the opponent process?
It becomes strengthened.
95
What is the result of the opponent process becoming stronger with repeated exposure?
Less positive emotional experience and stronger lingering opposing effects.
96
What is a significant consequence of the opponent process after the eliciting stimulus disappears?
The effects of the opponent process are experienced, such as a hangover.
97
How does the decay of the opponent process compare to the primary process?
The opponent process falls slower than the primary process.
98
What is classical conditioning?
The simplest mechanism by which we learn about connections between events.
99
What are habituation and sensitization?
Processes that involve learning about just one stimulus.
100
What does classical conditioning allow us to do?
Anticipate consequences from predictable events.
101
Who independently discovered classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov and Edwin Twitmyer.
102
What did Twitmyer’s experiment involve?
Ringing a bell before hitting a patient's knee to elicit a knee jerk reflex.
103
What was the significance of Twitmyer's findings?
They were ignored for many years despite their importance.
104
What did Pavlov's classical conditioning procedure involve?
Ringing a bell just before presenting food to dogs.
105
What are the components of Pavlov’s classical conditioning?
* US (Unconditioned Stimulus)
* UR (Unconditioned Response)
* CS (Conditioned Stimulus)
* CR (Conditioned Response)
106
What is the role of a neutral stimulus in classical conditioning?
It becomes a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
107
What is conditioned suppression?
The suppression of ongoing behavior in response to fearful stimuli.
108
What was the outcome of the Little Albert experiment?
Conditioned fear of a rat and generalization to other furry objects.
109
What is sign tracking?
Approaching and contacting stimuli that signal the availability of food.
110
What is taste aversion?
A form of classical conditioning where animals learn to avoid food paired with illness.
111
How quickly can strong food aversions be acquired?
In a single learning trial after just one pairing of CS and US.
112
Is nausea necessary for the development of food aversions?
No, food aversion learning can occur without conscious awareness.
113
What did the study by Smith and Roll (1967) demonstrate?
Rats developed aversion to saccharin if they were made ill shortly after tasting it.
114
What is the interstimulus interval?
The time from the start of the CS presentation to the start of the US presentation.
115
What is evaluative learning in advertising?
Pairing a product with things people already like to increase its likability.
116
What are the two main types of Pavlovian conditioning?
* Excitatory Conditioning
* Inhibitory Conditioning
117
What does excitatory conditioning involve?
Learning an association between a CS and a US.
118
What is the intertrial interval?
The time from the end of a trial to the beginning of the next.
119
True or False: Classical conditioning requires the pairing of a CS and a US.
True.
120
What is the INTERTRIAL INTERVAL in classical conditioning?
The time from the end of a trial to the beginning of the next trial.
121
What is the INTERSTIMULUS INTERVAL?
The time from the start of the CS presentation to the start of the US presentation.
122
For conditioning to develop, the interstimulus interval should be _______ than the intertrial interval.
shorter
123
What is Short-delayed conditioning?
The US occurs slightly after the onset of the CS presentation.
124
In Short-delayed conditioning, when does the CS presentation end?
It may continue during the US or end when the US begins.
125
What is Trace conditioning?
The CS is presented first followed by the US, with a delay between the end of the CS and the start of the US.
126
What is Long-delayed conditioning?
The CS is presented first followed by the US, which starts long after the start of the CS.
127
What is Simultaneous conditioning?
The CS and US are presented at the same time.
128
What is Backward conditioning?
The US is presented before the CS.
129
What is a Control Group in classical conditioning experiments?
A method for measuring conditioning by comparing all conditioning procedures.
130
Why are control groups necessary in the experimentation?
To determine whether responses to a CS represent a genuine CS-US association.
131
What is the sensitisation effect?
Increased responses elicited by a neutral stimulus without an established association with the US.
132
In fear conditioning, what type of response does the SHORT-DELAY PROCEDURE elicit?
Freezing response.
133
What happens during TRACE CONDITIONING procedures?
The termination of the CS is a better predictor of the US than the start of the CS.
134
What does the Temporal Coding Hypothesis suggest?
They learn not only WHAT to expect but WHEN to expect it.
135
How did Williams et al. (2008) demonstrate temporal coding in rats?
By monitoring when rats poked their heads into the food cup based on the timing of food delivery.
136
What is Inhibitory Pavlovian Conditioning?
Learning to predict the absence of a US.
137
Why is learning to predict the absence of something beneficial?
It helps to cope with the uncertainty of unpredictable bad events.
138
What did Craske et al. (1995) find regarding anxiety levels before and after panic attacks?
Anxiety levels increased after unpredicted attacks and decreased after predicted attacks.
139
What is a CONDITIONED INHIBITOR?
A signal that indicates the absence of a US.
140
What are examples of signs that indicate the absence of expected events?
* Closed
* Out of Order
* No Entry
141
What is the role of CS+ and CS- in inhibitory trials?
CS+ signals the presence of the US, while CS- signals the absence of the US.
142
What does the Negative Correlation Procedure involve?
Creating a negative CS-US contingency where the CS signals a reduction in the probability of the US occurring.
143
In the context of bullying, what is the CS-?
The teacher, who signals the absence of abuse.
144
What are bidirectional response systems?
Behaviours that can change in opposite directions from baseline performance.
145
How can inhibitory conditioning be measured indirectly?
Using the COMPOUND-STIMULUS test and the RETARDATION OF ACQUISITION test.
146
What is the COMPOUND-STIMULUS test?
A procedure that examines the effects of a CS that predicts a fearful stimulus.
147
What does the presence of an inhibitory tone (X-) do in the COMPOUND-STIMULUS test?
It inhibits the fear response elicited by excitatory stimuli.
148
What was the purpose of introducing tone stimulus Y in Cole et al.'s experiment?
To ensure that the inhibition observed was due to learned inhibitory properties, not novelty.
149
What happens when a safety signal is present during panic symptoms?
Reported anxiety and catastrophic ideation were less.
150
What is the main idea behind the Retardation of Acquisition Test?
If a stimulus inhibits a response, it should be difficult to turn it into a conditioned excitatory stimulus once the inhibitory conditioning is created.
151
What was the purpose of the Compound-Stimulus Procedure in panic disorder patients?
To test the effectiveness of a safety signal in reducing panic symptoms when patients were exposed to anxiety-inducing stimuli.
152
True or False: X- became a general safety signal in the context of inhibitory conditioning.
True
153
In the Retardation of Acquisition Test, which stimulus produced greater lick suppression?
Stimulus Y produced greater lick suppression than stimulus X.
154
What is latent inhibition in classical conditioning?
Learning is slower if the CS and US are highly familiar than when they are novel.
155
Fill in the blank: A CS does not initially elicit a _______.
[CR]
156
What is higher-order conditioning?
Classical conditioning that can occur without the presence of a US, where one CS becomes associated with another CS.
157
What determines the nature of the CR?
The nature of the US and the nature of the CS both determine the form of the CR.
158
What is sensory pre-conditioning?
An association formed between two stimuli (CS1 and CS2) before any aversive effects are introduced.
159
What is the blocking effect in classical conditioning?
The learning of a CR to a CS is disrupted because the US was previously associated with another CS.
160
According to the Rescorla-Wagner Model, what does a strong CR indicate?
A strong expectation of the US.
161
What happens at maximal learning (asymptote) in the Rescorla-Wagner Model?
V equals λ, and therefore the surprise factor (λ - V) equals 0.
162
What is the significance of the Retardation of Acquisition Test results?
It provides evidence that the inhibitory conditioning of stimulus X- retarded its acquisition of excitatory fear.
163
What is the role of novelty in latent inhibition?
Novelty facilitates the creation of new associations between the CS and US.
164
How does higher-order conditioning explain irrational fears?
A fear response can be conditioned to a new CS without the presence of a US due to previous associations.
165
What is the outcome of the US Devaluation Procedure?
Satiated rats show less CR to the CS than hungry control rats.
166
True or False: The nature of the US solely determines the CR.
False
167
What does the term 'conditioned inhibitor' refer to?
A stimulus that signals the absence of an aversive event, thus inhibiting a response.
168
Fill in the blank: A CS that has been paired with an aversive US can also become a _______ CS.
[excitatory]
