Personality U4-5-6 Flashcards
(167 cards)
1
Q
What is the primary objective of research in behavioral genetics?
A
To determine the percentage of individual differences attributed to genetic differences and environmental differences.
2
Q
Define heritability in the context of personality.
A
Statistic that refers to the proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be accounted for by genetic variance.
3
Q
What does a heritability estimate of .50 indicate?
A
50% of the observed phenotypic variation can be attributed to genotypic variation.
4
Q
In behavioral genetics, what is the nature-nurture debate?
A
Discussion on the relative importance of genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors in determining individual differences.
5
Q
What is the heritability range for extraversion and neuroticism?
A
Around .40 to .60.
6
Q
What is the heritability of shyness?
A
Approximately .44.
7
Q
What does a heritability of traditionalism indicate?
A
Around .59 for attitudes favoring conservative values over modern values.
8
Q
What is the heritability estimate for the propensity to marry?
A
68%.
9
Q
Differentiate between shared and nonshared environmental influences.
A
Shared: common experiences like family environment; Nonshared: unique experiences like different friends or activities.
10
Q
What is genotype-environment correlation?
A
Refers to the differential response of individuals with different genotypes to the same environments.
11
Q
Provide an example of genotype-environment interaction.
A
Abused children with low levels of MAOA developing antisocial behaviors compared to those with high levels.
12
Q
What is molecular genetics focused on?
A
Identifying specific genes or combinations of genes associated with personality traits.
13
Q
What role does the DRD4 gene play in personality?
A
Associated with novelty seeking and responsiveness to dopamine.
14
Q
What is the average heritability of human traits?
A
49%.
15
Q
What physiological characteristic might indicate introversion?
A
An overly sensitive nervous system.
16
Q
List common physiological measures used in personality research.
A
- Brain function
- Cardiovascular activity
- Electrodermal activity (skin conductance)
17
Q
What does electrodermal activity measure?
A
Sweat gland activity influenced by the sympathetic nervous system.
18
Q
What stimuli can elicit electrodermal activity?
A
- Sudden noises
- Emotional images
- Mental effort
- Pain
- Emotional reactions like anxiety
19
Q
What does an increase in heart rate indicate?
A
The body is preparing for action, such as fleeing or fighting.
20
Q
What is the significance of blood pressure in personality research?
A
It reflects the pressure exerted by blood on artery walls, indicating physiological arousal.
21
Q
What are the four distinct categories of physiological measures used in personality research?
A
- Brain Function
- Brain Structure
- Brain Connections
- Brain Electrical Activity
These categories help researchers understand the links between physiological aspects and personality traits.
22
Q
How can brain function be measured in personality research?
A
Using positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
These imaging techniques allow researchers to observe brain activity in response to various stimuli.
23
Q
Which brain region’s volume is positively correlated with extraversion?
A
Medial orbitofrontal cortex
This region is involved in processing reward information.
24
Q
What is the relationship between neuroticism and brain structure?
A
Neuroticism is correlated with the volume of brain regions associated with threat and punishment.
This suggests that individuals high in neuroticism may have larger areas related to negative emotional processing.
25
What do brain connections refer to in the context of personality research?
how different parts of the brain talk to each other and how these communication pathways might relate to a person's personality traits
## Footnote
This connectivity can influence personality traits and behaviors.
26
How is openness related to brain connectivity?
People high on openness show more total connectivity among all their brain regions.
## Footnote
This suggests that imaginative and creative individuals have more integrated brain activity.
27
What does the electroencephalogram (EEG) measure?
Brain electrical activity
## Footnote
EEG provides information about different patterns of activation in response to stimuli.
28
What physiological measure can indicate aggressive and risk-taking behavior?
Testosterone
## Footnote
Higher levels of testosterone are associated with uninhibited behavior patterns.
29
What is the main premise of the Extraversion–Introversion theory?
Differences in arousability, not basal arousal level, explain why some people are introverted and others are extraverted.
## Footnote
This theory was notably advanced by H. J. Eysenck.
30
What does the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) respond to?
Incentives such as cues for reward
## Footnote
BAS regulates approach behavior, primarily through the dopamine system.
31
What is the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) associated with?
Cues for punishment, frustration, and uncertainty
## Footnote
BIS is linked to susceptibility to anxiety, fears, and depression.
32
What is sensation seeking?
The tendency to seek out thrilling and exciting activities
## Footnote
It is related to the BAS and is often associated with personality traits like extraversion.
33
What neurotransmitter is linked to pleasure and pleasure-seeking behavior?
Dopamine
## Footnote
Dopamine levels are implicated in reward-driven behaviors.
34
What is the significance of morningness-eveningness in personality?
It refers to stable preferences for morning or evening activities based on biological rhythms.
## Footnote
These preferences can be influenced by circadian rhythms and are stable over time.
35
What are the implications of having a shorter biological rhythm?
Tendency to be a morning person
## Footnote
Individuals with longer biological rhythms tend to prefer evening activities.
36
What is the primary product of the evolutionary process according to evolutionary psychology?
Human nature
## Footnote
Psychological mechanisms that help humans survive and reproduce tend to spread throughout the population.
37
What does the concept of Domain Specificity in evolutionary psychology imply?
Most adaptations are designed to solve particular adaptive problems
## Footnote
For example, taste preferences help in food choices but do not aid in mate selection.
38
What is an example of the adaptation known as Numerousness in evolutionary psychology?
Humans have numerous psychological mechanisms like fears of snakes, heights, and spiders
## Footnote
These mechanisms arise because of various hazardous forces in nature.
39
What does the Functionality premise in evolutionary psychology suggest?
Psychological mechanisms are designed to accomplish specific adaptive tasks
## Footnote
Understanding the function of these mechanisms is crucial for insight into evolved psychology.
40
What are the three levels of personality analysis from the evolutionary perspective?
1. Human nature
2. Group differences
3. Individual differences
41
How does evolutionary psychology explain the need to belong?
Humans have evolved mechanisms to prevent social exclusion
## Footnote
For instance, social anxiety may serve as an adaptation to avoid ostracism.
42
What is a core part of human nature according to evolutionary psychology?
Universal emotions
## Footnote
For example, smiling to express happiness is shared among all humans.
43
What is an example of a protective factor related to the emotion of disgust?
Higher scores in disgust sensitivity correlate with fewer infections
## Footnote
This suggests that disgust serves an evolutionary protective function.
44
What are some sex differences observed in evolutionary psychology?
Differences in jealousy and desire for sexual variety
## Footnote
These differences can be explained through evolutionary pressures on mating strategies.
45
What is one explanation for individual differences in personality from an evolutionary perspective?
Environmental triggers acting on species-typical psychological mechanisms
## Footnote
For example, children in father-absent homes may develop unpredictable expectations of parental resources.
46
What does frequency-dependent selection refer to?
The reproductive success of a trait depends on its frequency relative to other traits
## Footnote
This can lead to the evolution of cooperators and cheaters in a population.
47
How can the optimum level of a personality trait vary?
It can change over time and space
## Footnote
For instance, risk-taking may be favored in food-scarce environments while caution may be favored in food-abundant ones.
48
What is the Big Five model in relation to evolutionary psychology?
It includes stable individual differences as solutions to adaptive problems
## Footnote
For example, high neuroticism may enhance vigilance to social dangers.
49
What are some individual differences that can emerge from motivational reactions?
Differences in cooperation versus selfishness in resource conflicts
## Footnote
These reflect long-term versus short-term mating strategies.
50
What is an example of a difference-detecting mechanism in humans?
Mechanisms designed to notice and remember individual differences relevant for solving social adaptive problems
## Footnote
This includes recognizing who is a reliable partner in times of need.
51
How is 'Culture' defined?
Set of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviours shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to the other.
52
What is Enculturation?
The process of socialization through which an individual acquires his or her native culture, mainly early in life.
53
What are Cultural variations?
Humans everywhere show striking patterns of local within-group similarity in their behaviour and thought, accompanied by profound intergroup differences.
54
What percentage of psychology study participants come from WEIRD countries?
About 80%.
55
What does WEIRD stand for?
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic.
56
What are the three major approaches to exploring personality across cultures?
* Evoked culture
* Transmitted culture
* Cultural universals
57
What is Evoked culture?
Cultural differences created by differing environmental conditions activating predictable responses.
58
Give an example of Evoked culture.
Patterns of cooperative food sharing among different bands of hunter-gatherer tribes under high-variance conditions.
59
What is Transmitted culture?
Ideas, values, attitudes, and beliefs that exist in one person's mind and are transmitted to others through interaction.
60
What are Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions used for?
To compare cultural characteristics of different countries.
61
What is the difference between Collectivistic and Individualistic cultures in terms of self-view?
* Collectivistic: Self-view as connected and committed to others.
* Individualistic: Self-view as autonomous and independent.
62
How do Collectivistic cultures describe themselves?
Using 'we' and descriptions related to social roles and family status.
63
How do Individualistic cultures describe themselves?
Using 'I' and abstract internal characteristics.
64
What is a key emotional experience difference between Collectivistic and Individualistic cultures?
* Collectivistic: More other-focused emotions (e.g., sympathy).
* Individualistic: More self-focused emotions (e.g., anger).
65
What is a criticism of the Interdependence–Independence and Collectivist–Individualist concepts?
Cultural differences are more a matter of degree and may be overly simplistic.
66
What did Robert McCrae and colleagues study?
The personality profiles of 50 different cultures using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory.
67
What was a significant finding from the study of 50 cultures?
The cultures showed remarkable similarity in their overall scores on the five-factor model.
68
What is the five-factor model of personality traits?
A model that includes five broad dimensions of personality.
69
What does cross-cultural research suggest about the five-factor model?
It has support across different cultures, although openness/intellect may not fit as well.
70
What is the HEXACO model?
A model derived from cross-cultural research suggesting six personality factors instead of five.
71
What are the three types of learning in the behavioural approach?
* Classical conditioning
* Operant conditioning
* Observational conditioning
## Footnote
These types of learning contribute to the development and changes in personality.
72
What is operant conditioning?
Consequences of actions
## Footnote
Involves reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior.
73
What is classical conditioning?
Associations between stimulus and response
## Footnote
This type of learning involves creating associations to influence behavior.
74
What does observational conditioning involve?
Role of one or more individuals (models) and observing the consequences they receive
## Footnote
This type of learning highlights the importance of models in behavior development.
75
What is the focus of the social learning theory?
Social factors that shape personality
## Footnote
It emphasizes learning from social models and the content of social learning, including behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes.
76
Who is a key figure associated with social learning theory?
Albert Bandura (1925-2021)
## Footnote
His work has significantly influenced our understanding of personality development through social learning.
77
What is modeling in the context of social learning theory?
Process through which the behavior of one person (observer) changes as a result of being exposed to the behavior of another (a model)
## Footnote
This concept is central to understanding how individuals learn from others.
78
What are vicarious consequences?
Observed outcomes of a model’s behavior
## Footnote
Observers can infer likely outcomes for similar actions based on these consequences.
79
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Consequence for the model seen as desirable
## Footnote
This increases the likelihood that observers will emulate the model's behavior.
80
What is vicarious punishment?
Consequence for the model seen as undesirable
## Footnote
This reduces the likelihood that observers will imitate the model.
81
What factors increase acceptance of a model in social learning?
* Similarity to the observer
* Consistent multiple models
* Models practice what they preach
* Models appear competent
## Footnote
These factors can influence the effectiveness of social learning.
82
What is one significant factor affecting marital satisfaction according to personality traits?
Partner’s personality traits of Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, and Intellect–Openness
## Footnote
These traits are linked to higher levels of relationship satisfaction.
83
True or False: Aggressive people tend to evoke hostility from others.
True
## Footnote
Their expectations of hostility lead to aggressive behaviors that elicit similar responses.
84
What is expectancy confirmation?
The tendency for people to act in ways that confirm their expectations about others
## Footnote
This can significantly influence social interactions and relationships.
85
Fill in the blank: _______ are tactics used for manipulation in social interactions.
Social Influence Tactics
## Footnote
Understanding these tactics can help individuals navigate social situations more effectively.
86
What are the Dark Tetrad personality traits?
Traits associated with manipulation and social influence
## Footnote
These traits include narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and sadism.
87
What is the definition of perception in the context of personality?
To perceive is to interpret a stimulus from individual experience.
## Footnote
This means that perception varies from person to person.
88
How does perception influence behavior?
Behavior largely depends on how we perceive an event and our self-image in relation to the world.
## Footnote
This highlights the subjective nature of perception.
89
What are the two types of perceptual styles?
Field dependence - Their perception tends to be more integrated with, or influenced by, the context surrounding the detail
Field independence. - They can see the individual parts distinct from the whole
## Footnote
These styles reflect how individuals perceive and interpret their environments.
90
What is field dependence?
A tendency to rely on external frames of reference and context when interpreting stimuli.
## Footnote
Individuals may struggle to separate details from their surrounding context.
91
What is field independence?
A tendency to rely on internal frames of reference and to separate details from their context.
## Footnote
Individuals may be more creative and better at finding patterns.
92
Who proposed the Personal Construct Theory?
George Kelly.
## Footnote
His theory likens individuals to scientists in their quest for explanations of life events.
93
What are personal constructs?
Templates that people fit over events to make sense of them.
## Footnote
They are unique to each individual and are bipolar in nature.
94
How does George Kelly define anxiety?
As the result of not being able to understand and predict life events.
## Footnote
Anxiety arises when personal constructs fail to make sense of circumstances.
95
What is the Locus of Control?
A concept that refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control events affecting them.
## Footnote
Introduced by Julian B. Rotter.
96
What are the two types of Locus of Control?
Internal Locus of Control and External Locus of Control.
## Footnote
Internal refers to personal control, while external refers to outside influence.
97
What does Learned Helplessness refer to?
A condition in which a person feels unable to control or change a situation, leading to passive behavior.
## Footnote
This concept is linked to cognitive factors and attributional style.
98
What are the three dimensions of attributional style?
* Internal vs External
* Stable vs Unstable
* Global vs Specific
## Footnote
These dimensions help determine how individuals explain events.
99
What is the focus of personality revealed through goals?
Intention and what people want to achieve in their lives.
## Footnote
Goals are a significant aspect of personality.
100
What is Self-Efficacy?
The belief that one can execute a specific course of action to achieve a goal.
## Footnote
Introduced by Albert Bandura, it influences performance.
101
What is the Theory of Mastery Orientation?
A theory by Carol Dweck that differentiates between students who view intelligence as fixed versus those who see it as malleable.
## Footnote
This belief affects their approach to challenges.
102
What does the Cognitive-Affective Personality System (CAPS) propose?
Personality is an organization of cognitive and affective activities influencing responses to situations.
## Footnote
Proposed by Walter Mischel, it emphasizes situational context.
103
What are the three components that define emotions?
* Distinct subjective feelings, or affects*
* Accompanied by bodily changes (e.g., breathing, heart rate)*
* Accompanied by distinct action tendencies
104
Why are personality psychologists interested in emotions?
Emotions help distinguish among people based on their emotional reactions to the same events
105
What are emotional states?
Transitory and have a specific cause, usually originating from the environment
106
What are emotional traits?
Patterns of emotional reactions that a person consistently experiences across various life situations
107
What is the categorical approach to emotions?
Emotions are thought of as a small number of primary and distinct emotions
108
What is the dimensional approach to emotions?
Emotions are defined by underlying dimensions, typically pleasantness and arousal
109
Define content of emotional life.
The specific kinds of emotions a person frequently experiences
110
Define style of emotional life.
The way in which an emotion is experienced, such as mood variability
111
What two components are involved in happiness?
* Cognitive component: life has purpose and meaning*
* Affective component: ratio of positive to negative emotions
112
What is the Easterlin paradox?
Happiness varies with income across nations at a point in time, but does not trend upward with increases in income over time within a country
113
What is trait anxiety?
An individual's predisposition to respond with state anxiety in threatening situations
114
What characterizes anxiety as an emotion?
Feelings of tension, worried thoughts, and physical changes like increased blood pressure
115
What is neuroticism?
A trait characterized by moodiness, anxiety, and instability
116
Describe Beck's cognitive triad related to depression.
Involves negative views about the self, the world, and the future
117
What is the diathesis-stress model?
A model suggesting that pre-existing vulnerability (diathesis) can lead to depression when combined with stressful life events
118
What does affect intensity refer to?
The typical intensity of a person's emotional experiences
119
Differentiate between high affect intensity and low affect intensity.
* High affect intensity: strong emotional experiences with rapid fluctuations*
* Low affect intensity: mild emotional experiences with gradual fluctuations
120
What is self-concept?
The descriptive component of the self, forming the answer to 'Who am I?'
121
What is self-esteem?
The evaluative component of the self, reflecting general feelings about oneself
122
Define social identity.
The self that is shown to others, involving socially observable elements
123
What are possible selves?
Ideas about who individuals might become, hope to become, or fear becoming
124
What is the relationship between personality and well-being?
Personality can indirectly influence well-being through life events or directly affect emotional experiences
125
Fill in the blank: Happiness is related to _______ and _______.
[success] and [well-being]
126
True or False: Ethnic group membership is related to subjective well-being.
False
127
What is the definition of stress?
The subjective feeling triggered by events perceived as uncontrollable and threatening to one's goals.
128
What are some behavioral variables that impact health?
* Getting enough sleep
* Physical exercise
* Limiting alcohol intake
* Not taking drugs
* Wearing seat belts
* Safe sex
* Coping well with stress
129
What does the interactional model of stress suggest?
Personality factors moderate the relationship between stress and illness through coping responses.
130
What is the transactional model of stress?
Personality affects health indirectly through health-promoting or health-degrading behaviors.
131
What does the health behavior model indicate?
Personality influences health by mediating the relationship between personality and illness through health behaviors.
132
What is the predisposition model in relation to personality and illness?
Personality and illness are expressions of an underlying predisposition.
133
What characterizes the illness behavior model?
Illness is perceived through symptoms and can involve heightened perception and attention to normal physiological sensations.
134
What are the common attributes of stressors?
* They tend to be extreme
* They produce a state of feeling overwhelmed
* They threaten an important goal
* They are perceived as uncontrollable
135
What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?
A three-stage model of stress response: Alarm stage, Endurance stage, Exhaustion stage.
136
What are the four varieties of stress?
* Acute stress
* Episodic acute stress
* Traumatic stress
* Chronic stress
137
What is primary appraisal in the context of stress?
Perception of the event as a threat to personal goals.
138
What is secondary appraisal in the context of stress?
Assessment of personal available resources to cope with the demands of the threatening event.
139
What is an optimistic attributional style?
A tendency to expect good events to be plentiful in the future and bad events to be rare.
140
What is the impact of emotional inhibition?
It requires effort and can lead to greater activation of the autonomic nervous system, increasing stress.
141
What is the role of disclosure in coping with stress?
Telling someone about a private aspect can be a healing process, leading to better health outcomes.
142
Fill in the blank: The concept of stress is a feeling of being overwhelmed by events that you cannot seem to control and that threaten an important _______.
[goal]
143
True or False: Stress responses are the same for all individuals.
False
144
What is the effect of positive emotions in coping with stress?
They can aid in managing stress and improving health outcomes.
145
What is Type A Personality?
A personality type characterized by competitiveness, urgency, and high stress levels.
146
What is a Personality Disorder?
Maladaptive variations of individual differences that lead to distress and impairment in life domains.
147
What is the definition of a psychological disorder?
A pattern of behaviour or experience that is distressing, leads to disability or impairment, and is associated with increased risk for further suffering.
148
What does Philippe Pinel's concept of 'manie sans delire' refer to?
Madness without loss of reason.
149
What is the role of culture in defining abnormal behaviour?
Culture influences what society tolerates and deems unacceptable.
150
What is the dimensional model of psychological disorders?
A view that suggests the difference between normal and abnormal is a question of degree, not a qualitative break.
151
What are the three clusters of personality disorders?
* Erratic Cluster
* Anxious Cluster
* Eccentric Cluster
152
What is a key feature of Histrionic Personality Disorder?
Excessive attention seeking and emotionality.
153
What characterizes Borderline Personality Disorder?
Unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image.
154
What is a defining trait of Narcissistic Personality Disorder?
A strong need to be admired and feelings of entitlement.
155
What is the primary characteristic of Antisocial Personality Disorder?
General disregard for others and lack of remorse.
156
What are the symptoms of Avoidant Personality Disorder?
* Feeling of inadequacy
* Sensitivity to criticism
* Fear of rejection
157
What defines Dependent Personality Disorder?
Excessive need to be taken care of and difficulties in independent functioning.
158
What is a feature of Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?
Excessive preoccupation with order and perfection.
159
What characterizes Schizoid Personality Disorder?
No desire for intimate relationships and apathy.
160
What is a symptom of Schizotypal Personality Disorder?
Disorganized thoughts and unusual perceptions.
161
What is a key trait of Paranoid Personality Disorder?
Extreme distrust and misinterpretation of social situations.
162
What is the prevalence rate of personality disorders?
Around 11%.
163
What does comorbidity refer to in the context of personality disorders?
The presence of two or more disorders in a single individual.
164
What factors contribute to the causes of personality disorders?
* Childhood relationships
* Abuse
* Genetic factors
* Social learning
165
True or False: The scientific community accepts a categorical view of psychological disorders.
False.
166
Fill in the blank: The difference between normal and abnormal is not qualitative but a question of _______.
[degree]
167
What is the significance of the term 'WEIRD countries' in the context of personality disorders?
Countries that reward perfection, cleanliness, and punctuality, highlighting cultural biases in diagnosis.
