Lifespan Flashcards

Question

__________ refers to the tendency of preoperational children to mentally link certain experiences, whether or not they actually have a causal relationship.

Answer 1

Transduction (also known as transductive and precausal reasoning)

Answer 2

1 -3m. turns head fingers to mouth 4-6 m rolls, 5 m sits on lap and reaches, 6 sits, and stands w help 7-9 m sits, 9 pulls up and stands 10 - 12 stands, walks w help 12m steps 13-15 walks, 16 creeps upstairs 16 - 24 runs, walks upstairs uses spoon 25- 48 jumps, rides bike, dresses handedness

Answer 3

latent We can learn without candy but we will perform what we learned with candy

Answer 4

``` recessive allele (p) two recessive alleles for that condition (pp), ``` two different alleles (Pp). ("P" refers to a normal allele and "p" refers to the recessive allele for PKU.) 25% 50% 25%

Answer 5

prior to 3 mo. little or no consequences 9 m or older; moderate to extreme-sleep and eating problems social withdrawal, increase stranger anxiety physical aggressive or clinginess to new mother

Answer 6

cognitive development is the ability to notice, store, and retain info. task specific, Focus on mental operations and view cognitive development as due to changes in mental capacity and increasing sophistication in the use of relevant rules and strategies. , not interested in stages of development. is continuous/ no critical period.

Answer 7

ability to achieve native-like pronunciation of a second language when exposure begins in early or middle childhood adolescents and adults make faster progress (esp. in regards to syntax and morphology)

Answer 8

Chomsky: brains contain a language acquisition device (LAD) that includes a universal grammar that underlies all human language. children are born with a knowledge of general rules of syntax that determine how sentences are constructed. Language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it/against Skinner's idea that language is developed by teaching/imitation and reinforcements. Interactionist : bio and environmental factors. social interactions-motherese - extension parents adds to the child's statement but keeps word order -extension: parents add information to child's statement

Answer 9

expressive -output that adher to rule governing order Syntax- sentence structure pragmatics: social use of language within a social context Semantic: The meanings of words Receptive Language: Auditory comprehensions of messages

Answer 10

3 levels 1- preconventional (4 to 10) (based on punishment) punishment obedience act depends on consequence if it is punishment's that the action is wrong: self interest and reward, goodness/badness -comply with rules to avoid punishment and get reward (man stealing is wrong because he will get a beat down. Stealing is right because his wife will give him a kiss) --instrumental hedonism more on obtaining rewards than punishments -Conventional: good boy/good girl: right action is liked/approved by others. (he should break into the store and then everyone will think he is a good husband: he should not because it is against the law)right and wrong is determined by what other's think/ want to please others/ social norms and laws-want to be a good member of a group: a good decision is one that gains approval from others or that complies with the law: people care about the effect of their actions on others -Post Conventional: Social contracts est. for the good of all and can transcend self and social convention. Man should break into the store even if it is against the law b/c the wife needs the drug and her life is more important; man should not violate the principle of the right of property bc this rule is essential for social order: based on concern for others for society as a whole and ethical standards rather than legal-goes beyond convention or what other's think to a higher universal principle of conduct that may or may not reflect the law. -requires the ability to think abstractly

Answer 11

3 stages 0-2 wks.-germinal (zygote fertilized ovum) 3-8wk: embryonic 9wk-birth: fetal

Answer 12

ability to make interferes about another's representational states and predict behavior (to think about other people's thoughts) (people have diverse desires, beliefs, access to knowledge, and false beliefs) 2-3yrs. people have different perceptions, emotions ect, that influence behavior 4 to 5 other persons' thoughts maybe false, people act on false beliefs after 5 people's actions are not consistent with true beliefs Influenced by different factors- engages in pretend play, school adjustment, siblings parent-child interaction

Answer 13

Babinski: toes out and up when tickled Rooting: head in direction touches Moro (Startle) flings arms and legs out then towards the body Stepping walk movement when held upright.

Answer 14

3 types passive genotype-environment-encouraged: passively inherit the genes and the environment their parent's provide: athletically inclined Evocative- evokes reactions from parents: how the social environment reacts to individuals based on their inherited characteristics" outgoing or shy temperament will affect how he/she is treated by other people. active- (niche picking) actively seeks out experiences-consistent with predisposition: children who are musically inclined seek out music instructions

Answer 15

decrease visual acuity, depth, color Presbyopia-difficulty focusing-starts in mid 40s Increase light sensitivity, Deficits: visual search, dynamic vision-(perceive details of moving objects) speed of visual processing Audition: decreased ability to perceive high frequency Strength coordination and reaction time. slow up: sensorimotor, perception and cognition

Answer 16

``` polygenetic-height, intelligence,-multiple genes Dominant gene: Homozygous both parents hetero- one parent Genotype: inheritance Phonotype: what you see ```

Answer 17

Stages of Psychosexual Development: ID-basic urges needs, desires, largest past of the child's mind, child behaves in order to meet these pleasure seeking energies and libido becomes the driving force. Ego develops in infancy-conscious, rational. Superego (conscience) 2 to 6 years Oral (B- 1fixation-dependence, gullibility, sarcasm and orally focused habits Anal (1-3yrs.) anal retentiveness (stinginess, selfishness, OCD,) anal expulsiveness (cruelty, destructiveness and messiness) Phallic (3-6) Oedipal Conflict: (pleasure in genital stimulation- develop desire for the opposite sex parent (oedipal complex) as child begins to avoid punishment for these feelings-align with same sex parents(Electra Complex) Superego forms as a results of conflict and resolution sexual exploitations of others Latency (6 - 12) diffuse not focused, develop social skills over sexual gratification Genital (12+) produce mature sexual relationships

Answer 18

the emergence of new structures and functions during the course of development. -bidirectional relation between all levels of biological and experiential factors, genetic activity both influences and is influenced by structural maturation Ex: genes determine the production of protein molecules- form structures of muscles/new cells that activity of these can serve to turn on or off a particular gene there by cause genetic activity. also self produced activity or stimulation for external sources alter the development of sets of cells. modification in gene expression and are passed on when cells divide: nutrition, stress and teratogens can change gene expressions by switching genes on and off- monozygotic twins gene expression match as infants, had discrepancies as they age-due to different experience- susceptibility to disease and personal characteristics.

Answer 19

Vision: B- 20 ft.-- 6 mo. same as normal adult -kinetic, binocular, pictorial cues for depth perception Audition: in utero-auditory localization (ability to orient to direction of sound) shortly after birth, disappears btwn 2 to 4 mo. and reappears and improves for the rest of the year. -- 3 mo. prefer mom's voice -- Birth distinguish between "a' and "i" sounds, 3 mo. consonants. Taste and Sound within hours after birth.

Answer 20

Family contribution to aggression Interaction model of aggression. children focus on parent's behavior but recognizes role of coercive exchanges -both act aggressively in order to alter behavior of the other, this pattern escalate over time. aggressiveness is initiated by parent modeling and reinforcement, overtime children acquire aggressive behaviors, the aggressive interactions between child and parents increase in intensity Learn behavior from parents- do not reinforce prosocial behaviors, use harsh disciple and reward aggression, -Oregon Model of parent management training

Answer 21

pre operational

Answer 22

eight weeks: 16th

Answer 23

``` denial isolation anger bargaining depression acceptance ```

Answer 24

overgeneralization, personalization, and catastrophizing cognitive triad Schemata Automatic thoughts

Answer 25

Research on child and TV 3 to 4 yrs. people on TV can see into their homes -may believe that people who act dead on TV are really dead 4 or 5 commercials are only entertainment- by 8 understand that commercial are to influence you to buy a product 7 to 9 yrs. understanding that they are playing a part. Violence on TV-increases aggressive behaviors and tolerance reinforces traditional gender roles, reduce physical activity read less, less family interaction less creative, poorly in school benefit: vocabulary acquisition, cognitive skills, prosocial attitudes, cognitive skills.

Answer 26

preference for adults for emotionally close vs novel social partners is related to difference in time perspective: compares motivation and preferences of adults in different age groups; older adults have different preferences than younger, but differences are not due solely to age, but awareness of time left to live-perceive time as unlimited-novel social partners, time as limited prefer emotionally close and have fewer partners as a result

Answer 27

info processing and piagetian approach biological maturation and experience- individuals actively construct their knowledge, focus on developmental changes, and the impact of the context in which it develops. uneveness is a normal part of development.

Answer 28

``` 6 family risk factors 1-marital discord 2-low ses 3- large family size 4-parental criminality, 5-maternal psychopathology, 6- placement outside the home. Resiliency for high risk children reduce risk impact, reduce negative chain reaction, promote self esteem, and self efficacy ```

Answer 29

different socialization mechanisms that promote conscience development in children with different temperamental traits: focused on fearfulness and parent's socialization practice: A number of researchers have found that fearful children score higher on measures of conscience, and Kochanska extended this finding by showing that the relationship between fearfulness and conscience development is affected by caregivers' socialization practices. Specifically, she found that, among fearful toddlers, conscience development is fostered when the mother uses "gentle discipline." In contrast, among fearless toddlers, conscience development depends more on a secure mother-child attachment and maternal responsiveness

Answer 30

CMV is a type of herpes virus. Although infection with CMV during adulthood usually produces no or mild symptoms, infection during prenatal development or birth can be life-threatening. Approximately 10% of infants infected with CMV show symptoms at birth, and about 10 to 15% of infants who are asymptomatic at birth develop symptoms during the first few years of life. Common symptoms include some degree of intellectual disability and hearing and visual impairments. : hearing and visual impairments

Answer 31

can occur during pregnancy, child birth, feeding; HIV positive- 20 to 30% chance 20% receiving treatment exhibit syp. first 2 years, 80% age 3 or later 50% live past 10 yrs

Answer 32

Gender Schema Theory: Children develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with maleness and femaleness -identify a gender, seek out information about gender traits, behaviors and roles, constructivist theory

Answer 33

proposed hypothesis: Prolonged juvenile period(time to develop large brain) Childhood behaviors prepare child for adulthood-doll playing psychological mechanisms are domain specific (info processing)- to deal with problems in environment)- mate selection, food acquisition: infants are constrained to process certain info in a core domain; so not to become overstimulated) evolved adaptive behaviors that are not adaptive now- overeating bc of food scarcity-now obesity

Answer 34

social referencing: 14 to 18 mo separation anxiety 6 to 8 peaks 14 to 18 stranger anxiety 8 to 10 continues to age 2

Answer 35

Goslings-critical period

Answer 36

9 Dimensions of Temperament ( Activity level, rhythmicity (regularity of bio functions), approach/withdrawal (how children deal with new things), adaptability to situations, intensity of reactions, threshold of responsiveness (how intense a stimulus has to be for the child to react), quality of mood, distractibility, attention span, and persistence categorized into 3 general types. 1-easy: can adapt, Calm, Easy to Soothe, Positive Mood 2- Difficult: Reacts Neg. never sits, trouble adapting, neg. mood, cries 3- Slow to warm up: Low activity level, slow to adjust, neg mood goodness of fit: styles match and comm. and interaction can flow: parents accept temperament

Answer 37

Cooing 1 syllable (B - 6/8 weeks) Babbling (4m) intentional vocalization that lacks meaning and comprised of consonant, vowel, sounds and repeated sequence (9m - 14 m; narrow sounds down to native language) First word (10m to 15m) Holophrasic (1-2y). one word expression, gesture, and intonations. Telegraphic (18 - 24m) string of two words to make a sentence, dog go vocab growth (18 m) Grammatically Correct Sentences (2 to 5) Metalinguaistic ( reflect on language) 6 to 7 y

Answer 38

coercive exchanges between between parents and child- both act out aggressively to alter each other's behaviors. imitated by modeling and reinforcement Aggressive interaction increase intensity

Answer 39

egocentric and environmental-organism constantly reshapes its self adaptation-consists in an equilibrium between accommodation of schemata behavior of things and assimilation of things to the schemata of behavior -driving force to constantly apply it's schemata to new objects and constantly improve it's schemata -identity; drive to ideal equilibrium -entire development is striving

Answer 40

fewer stressors following birth stable support from parent or other caregiver easy temperament

Answer 41

habituation which, in the context of punishment, occurs when the punisher loses its effectiveness. Gradually increasing the intensity of a punishment over time is usually ineffective because it leads to habituation. Satiation In the context of punishment, sensitization extinction

Answer 42

Born less than 37 wks 3.3 lbs can survive. can catch up with right environment if weight below 10th percentile for gastro age then infant is small for gatro age -asphyxia, respiratory disease, hypoglycemia, LD and ADHS

Answer 43

Basic emotions: interest, happiness, anger, surprise, sadness, and disgust Self-Conscious emotions, envy, pride, shame, guilt, doubt and embarrassment -developing self concept and social instruction/varies from culture to culture

Answer 44

Deletion: part is missing Prader-Willis Syndrome-intellect Disability, obesity, OCD) Translocation: transfer segment to another chromosome Inversion: chromosome breaks and reattaches upside down

Answer 45

Recessive Disorders (Homozygous): The individual inherits a gene change from both parents. If the gene is inherited from just one parent, the person is a carrier and does not have the condition. Cases per Birth • Sickle Cell Disease (SCD) is a condition in which the red blood cells in the body are shaped like a sickle (like the letter C) and affect the ability of the blood to transport oxygen. Carriers may experience some effects, but do not have the full condition. 1 in 500 Black births 1 in 36,000 Hispanic births • Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a condition that affects breathing and digestion due to thick mucus building up in the body, especially the lungs and digestive system. In CF, the mucus is thicker than normal and sticky. 1 in 3500 • Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic disorder in which the individual cannot metabolize phenylalanine, an amino acid. Left untreated intellectual deficits occur. PKU is easily detected and is treated with a special diet. 1 in 10,000 • Tay Sachs Disease is caused by enzyme deficiency resulting in the accumulation of lipids in the nerve cells of the brain. This accumulation results in progressive damage to the cells and a decrease in cognitive and physical development. Death typically occurs by age five. 1 in 4000 1in 30 American Jews is a carrier 1 in 20 French Canadians is a carrier • Albinism is when the individual lacks melanin and possesses little to no pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes. Vision problems can also occur. Fewer than 20,000 US cases per year Autosomal Dominant Disorders (Heterozygous): In order to have the disorder, the individual only needs to inherit the gene change from one parent. Cases per Birth • Huntington’s Disease is a condition that affects the individual’s nervous system. Nerve cells become damaged, causing various parts of the brain to deteriorate. The disease affects movement, behavior and cognition. It is fatal, and occurs at midlife. 1 in 10,000 • Tourette Syndrome is a tic disorder which results in uncontrollable motor and vocal tics as well as body jerking. 1 in 250 • Achondroplasia is the most common form of disproportionate short stature. The individual has abnormal bone growth resulting in short stature, disproportionately short arms and legs, short fingers, a large head, and specific facial features. 1 in 15,000-40,000 Sex-Linked Disorders: When the X chromosome carries the mutated gene, the disorder is referred to as an X-linked disorder. Males are more affected than females because they possess only one X chromosome without an additional X chromosome to counter the harmful gene. Cases per Birth • Fragile X Syndrome occurs when the body cannot make enough of a protein it needs for the brain to grow and problems with learning and behavior can occur. Fragile X syndrome is caused from an abnormality in the X chromosome, which then breaks. If a female has fragile X, her second X chromosome usually is healthy, but males with fragile X don’t have a second healthy X chromosome. This is why symptoms of fragile X syndrome usually are more serious in males. 1 in 4000 males 1 in 8000 females • Hemophilia occurs when there are problems in blood clotting causing both internal and external bleeding. 1 in 10,000 males • Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is a weakening of the muscles resulting in an inability to move, wasting away, and possible death. 1 in 3500 males

Answer 46

females of all ages- higher levels of empathy(affective empathy) but gender gap decreases with exposure to empathy modeling/training- both genders benefit

Answer 47

Identity Diffusion: not yet expereinced an identity crisis Identity Foreclosure: Take on Occupation of Same sex parent Identity Moratorium: Crisis and active explores other identities. -confusion discontent, rebelliousness Identity Achievement:

Answer 48

chromosomal (autosomes 22/23 sex pairs) Disorder Dominant/Recessive: Phenylketonuria (PKU) : PKU autosomal recessive disorder-inherited one recessive allele (p) from each parent. A parent w homozygous has two recessive alleles (pp) while a person with heterozygous with regard to PKU when 2 different alleles (Pp) where P is normal: 2 parents are heterozygous for PKU (Pp) 25% of their offspring will not have the disorder (PP) and not carry, %50 (Pp) and 25% (pp) if one parent (Pp) and other (PP) %50 (Pp) and 50% (pp) ,Tay-Sack disease, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell Chromosomal: Downs (21) Kinefelter ( XX and Y): affects males, low testosterone, infertility, breasts, reduce body and facial hair Turner (X)

Answer 49

nonfunctionally irreversibility Universality 2 - 5 view death as reversible, temporary, abandonment 5 to 9 they can cheat death, irreversible 10 loss of functioning, irreversible and universal

Answer 50

bootstrapping mechanism are considered as a linkage between properties of the specific language the child is exposed to and pre-existing linguistic knowledge provided by universal grammar. Semantic Bootstrapping: use knowledge of the meaning of the word to infer their syntactical grammar (rules) Syntactic Bootstrapping: use of syntactical knowledge to infer the meaning of the word (narrow the possible meaning of the word)

Answer 51

Reflexive Schemes, Primary Circular Reactions (self sustaining sequence of action) Secondary Circular React. (no longer body, repeat a phenomenon that was discovered by accident) Coordinated Secondary Circular React. (8m-12m: more complex, intentional actions, schema is applied), Tertiary Circular Reactions (12m-18m; Changes actions to see what happens/ Scientist) Mental Representation (18-24m: internal motor activities motor imitation schema, actions do not have to be carried out physically but can be visualized; no insight-imitating not constructing; figurations)--object permanence

Answer 52

oriented to sound comes and goes 3 mos. differentiate sound-prefers mom's voice after birth distinguish vowel a and i, 2 to 3 similar consonants taste hours after birth

Answer 53

(2-7 years): practical schema is expanded and partially replaced with image representation, reflect upon own image/action. images receive verbal meaning- recall actions and anticipate future, imitation-development into fantasy games, -magical thinking, animism. -pre casual (transductive) reasoning, reflects on incomplete understanding of cause and effect: to see a casual relationship when one does not exist)

Answer 54

Second half of the first year. | , 75% of infants 6, 9, or 11 months of age imitated at least one action

Answer 55

Social experience over a lifetime and focus on ego than id. 8 -stages Basic trust vs mistrust (infancy) trust and optimism Autonomy vs Shame (Toddlerhood) Initiative Vs Guilt (school age) purpose Industry vs Inferiority (School age) competence Identity vs role confusion (teen) fidelity Intimacy Vs Isolation (adulthood) have or not have a relationships-love Generativity vs Stagnation (middle Adulthood) capacity to care and be involved in the world in a certain way Ego Integrity vs Despair ( Maturation/old age ) Wisdom

Answer 56

Birth/ 3 to 4 months infants can express at least 4 emotions through their facial expressions- interest, sadness, distress and disgust --Anger joy, surprise and fear at 6 to 8 months. Jealousy, embarrassment and other self conscious emotions occur between the ages of 12 to 18Mo. which aligns with the ages that a sense of self emerges (18 to 24) By 24 m. jealousy, embarrassment, and empathy then shame, guilt, and pride (30 to 36)

Answer 57

early interpersonal interaction patterns

Answer 58

Moral Development of Females Caring, Compassion and responsibility to others. Level 1- orientation to individual survival Transition 1 from selfishness to responsibility, Level 2 goodness as self sacrifice Transition 2 From goodness to Truth Level 3 Morality of non violence Adolescence is critical period for girls, relational crisis-psychological separation from themselves, others and the world as a result of external pressures -resist disconnection

Answer 59

Scoio Cultural- culture and interaction of cognitive abilities. Set of potential can be realized with proper guidance. cognitive-interpersonal (interaction with others) intrapersonal (internalizes what what they learned from others) Zone of proximal development: (where that can almost perform a task but not without assistance. A type of support that is supplied by an adult who is more cognitive mature and allows the child to accomplish a task with assistance that she will eventually be able to preform independently-providers of support (scaffolding) scaffolding: specific guidance and support the adults provide children to assist in mastering tasks within the Zone.. Self directed speech: (Piaget: egocentric speech)regulate and organize their own behaviors- later becomes internalized make believe: symbolic play-support system that allowed children to act and think in more cognitive complex ways. Reciprocal teaching method

Answer 60

underextension : word can only be used for that particular object: ball used for only their toy ball but not all balls Overextension: (overgeneralization) label all dogs as Byron: 22 m old: refers all vehicles as cars, but can point to a picture of a bus/truck when asked: have a greater understanding (comprehension) of language than is suggested by production

Answer 61

responsiveness (acceptance and warmth) and demandedness (control/expectations) 4 parenting styles that predict personality and behavioral outcome for child/adolescent: -Authoritarian: ( High control, Low Warmth)shape, control and evaluate their child's behavior based on absolute set of standard. traditional model of parenting in which parents make the rules and children are expected to be obedient. -Authoritative- (high Control, High Warmth) supportive and show interest in their kids' activities but are not overbearing and allow them to make constructive mistakes: - parents are assertive, socially responsible, and self confident. Permissive: ( Low Control, High Warmth) warm and caring but make few demands and are not punitive: hold expectations of children that are below what could be reasonably expected of them. Children make up own rules- fail to learn self discipline and feel insecure. Parents tend to be immature, impulsive, self centered, easily frustrated and low achievement/independence. - Rejecting-Neglecting (uninvolved). (Low Control, Low Warmth) low levels of responsibility and demandedness- overly hostile, juvenile delinquents. --moderated by child' temperament/ culture

Answer 62

severe malnutrition-protein deficiency in 3rd Trimester- detrimental to brain- reduced neurons, myelination, and neurotransmitter abnormalities; lack of Folic Acid- spina bifida 6 m to 9 m

Answer 63

30 yrs. stable agreeableness, social dominance, conscientiousness, and emotional stability increase social vitality and openness are stable through middle adulthood but decline 55+

Answer 64

system of actions with definitive structural properties, representational act that is an integral part of an organizing network of related acts

Answer 65

a child's genotype restricts his or her phenotype to a small number of possible outcomes

Answer 66

11 or 12 yrs. Relational crisis to fit into cultural stereotypes of the perfect woman, they disconnect from themselves to maintain a relationship: low achievement --loss of voice, low self esteem, vulnerability to psychological problems.

Answer 67

selective attention and inductive reasoning is affected by age. Blood flow drops the most in the frontal cortex, declines in verbal fluency, or the ability to find the words they want. They also have to work harder at "executive function," planning and organizing their activities. The areas most affected after that include the parietal cortex, which affects construction and visuomotor performance (practice that golf swing!), and the medial temporal area, which affects the ability to make new long-term memories and think flexibly. Episodic (what did I have for breakfast?), source (where did I learn about that new car?), and flashbulb (where where you on Sept. 11, 2001?) memory decline the most. Semantic (words, facts and concepts) and procedural ("it's like riding a bicycle - you never forget") memory decline the least. implicit learning - learning without conscious effort - seems to more or less be spared into old age age 50 recall teen to young adults- reminiscence bump: novel experience encoding recall of recent events -20 years-retention age affects; explicit memory , mostly recent long-term; secondary memory (aspects of LTM that contains newly acquired info, most negatively affected by age) then working memory (short term) Retained: remote long term, memory span and sensory memory episodic most severe decline - moderate decline metamemory, also affected, semantic and procedural

Answer 68

early recognition and recall 3 m recognition recall 6 to 12 m increase memory strategies rehearsal 9 to 10 rehearsal organization and elaboration, adolescence metacognition childhood infantile amnesia 5 years: the inability to recall events that occur prior to age 3 to 4-the inability of adolescents and adults to recall events they experience prior to 3 or 4 yrs.

Answer 69

The verbal way of expressing language: Phonemes: the smallest unit of sound Articulation is the movement of speech organs

Answer 70

Code Switching: shift between languages during the course of a conversation -used to express solidarity with cultural group, better express one's attitudes or feelings.

Answer 71

Gross motor milestones for two-year-old children include climbing up on furniture, walking alone, walking up and down stairs one at a time, and catching a large ball using hands and chest. - 3 yr years of age include pedaling a tricycle, kicking a stationary ball forward, throwing a ball overhand, going up stairs using alternate feet, and running without falling - Gross motor milestones for four-year-old children include hopping on one foot, standing on one leg, running to kick a ball, bouncing a ball, and going down stairs using alternate feet. - Gross motor milestones for five-year-old children include riding a scooter or bicycle, jumping rope, hopping on alternate feet, jumping over low obstacles, and catching a ball with both hands and arms bent.

Answer 72

Secure: flexibility of attention-explores or plays in parent's presences, changes attentional focus to parent on at least one separation and seek parent during at least one reunion. In pre-separation episodes explores room and toys with interest, with occasional returns to checks in with parents (secure base phenomenon) Shows signs of missing parent during separation, often crying by second separation. Greets parent actively, usually initiating physical contact. Usually some contact maintain by second reunions but then settles and returns to play Avoidant little flexibility of attention: Focuses on toys or environment and away from parent, whether present or departing or returning, Explores toys, objects, and room throughout procedure. Fails to cry on separation. Actively avoids or ignores parent on reunion (turning away, leaning out of arms when picked up) little or no proximity or contact seeking, distress, or expression of anger. Response to parent appears unemotional. resistant or ambivalent: little flexibility of attention: focuses on parent throughout or all procedure, with no focus on toys or environment May be wary or distress prior to separation, may seem angry or passive. Fails to settle or take comfort in reunion and cont. to focus on parent and cry. Signs of angry towards parent are mixed with efforts to make contact

Answer 73

Chomsky: 2 structures: deep structure of an idea; that is, how the idea is represented in the fundamental universal grammar that is common to all languages, and the surface structure of the idea or how it is expressed in any one language. Once we hear or express a thought in surface structure, we generally forget exactly how it happened. At the end of a lecture, you will remember a lot of the deep structure (i.e., the ideas expressed by the instructor), but you cannot reproduce the surface structure (the exact words that the instructor used to communicate the ideas)

Answer 74

``` timing of exposure- critical period amount of exposure # of teratogens Gene makeup Male/Female ```

Answer 75

Women are more likely to ask questions during a conversation, and men tend to talk for longer periods of time, interrupt more frequently, and make more eye contact.

Answer 76

In the context of language acquisition, bootstrapping refers to mechanisms that children use to facilitate language acquisition. Syntactic bootstrapping refers to a child's use of syntactical knowledge to learn the meaning of new words.

Answer 77

a type of herpes virus is passed from an infected pregnant woman to her fetus through the placenta. -intellectual disabilities and hearing and visual impairments.

Answer 78

Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found that grade school teachers' expectations about students had a self-fulfilling prophecy effect - i.e., when teachers were told that the test scores of some students indicated they would be "academic spurters" (even though the students had been randomly selected), those students had unusual gains in academic performance, apparently because they were treated differently by the teachers.

Answer 79

age related memory changes: increase speed and capacity for working memory. rehearsal organization elaboration age 9 Metacognition and metamemory

Answer 80

Adults can not recall events prior to age three or four- brain essential for memory of events-prefrontal cortex is not fully developed. and absence of language that is necessary to encode information in ways that would enable later retrieval. - they will recall a larger amount of recent events followed by events that occurred in the last 20 years. retention function greater recall of events that occurred in the past 20 years. -reminiscences _ greater recall of events that occurred when they were 10 to 30 years old (occurs: larger portion of novel experiences at this time, encoding information is most efficient, personal sense of self is developed at this time.)

Answer 81

young siblings middle-childhood: paradoxical: closeness/conflict and cooperation/competition Adolescence

Answer 82

Hippocampus

Answer 83

Motor Play: rough and tumble Dramatic (imaginative)play 3 nonsocial - unoccupied play: random movements that do not seem to have a goal - onlooker play: child watches and makes comments - solitary play 3 social - parallel play - associative play - cooperative play --associative play; social

Answer 84

Play mates: 4 to 7 8 to 10 11/preadolescence ;adolescence Buffering: when subjective perception of social support is more critical then actual support-adulthood

Answer 85

Rejected-aggressive child Rejected-withdrawn child neglected children Rejected is the worst and this does not improve even when moving to different peer groups.

Answer 86

-similarity in age, SES education, and religion, marrying after 23, dating at least 6 mos, before marriage, and waiting one year to have children. U: middle years of marriage.

Answer 87

(age: preadolescent) Hetherington concludes that individuals in early adolescence have the most difficulty adapting to the remarriage of a parent because the introduction of a stepparent at this time may exacerbate the normal adjustment problems associated with this age. Especially in regard to autonomy and sexuality (gender: females) in preadolescence especially in families with a step father. but is beneficial for boys in this age group. Boys in this age group become even closer to their step fathers and there is no difference to nondivorced boys in behavioral and academic problems.

Answer 88

help the child recognize the consequences of his or her behavior and identify alternative behaviors. There is evidence that fostering empathy (e.g., by helping the child recognize the consequences of his/her behavior for the target of the aggression) and helping the child identify alternative behaviors is useful, especially for younger children.

Answer 89

Visual Cliff: Of the techniques listed in the answers, the visual cliff is the only one that has been used to study social referencing. Research using this technique has found that a baby's willingness to cross the visual cliff depends on his/her mother's facial expression.

Answer 90

18 to 24 months Two-word sentences are referred to as telegraphic speech, which is characteristic of children between the ages of 18 and 24 months and consists of the most important words (e.g., "my doll" and "give cake").

Answer 91

Marcia distinguishes between four identity statuses that reflect the degree to which the individual has experienced an identity crisis and is committed to an identity. Identity foreclosure occurs when the individual has not experienced an identity crisis but has chosen an identity (e.g., career) that has been imposed by others. Identity moratorium occurs when the individual is experiencing an identity crisis and is actively exploring alternative identities. Identity diffusion occurs when the individual has not yet experienced an identity crisis and is not committed to a particular identity. Identity achievement occurs when the individual has resolved the identity crisis and is committed to an identity.

Answer 92

Recent long-term (secondary) memory sensory memory memory span remote long-term memory

Answer 93

- Babinski - Rooting - Moro - stepping reflex

Answer 94

Secondary circular reactions predominate from ages 4 to 8 months and are actions involving other people or objects. For example, at this stage, an infant may learn that grabbing a rattle with his or her hand and shaking it produces an interesting noise. Piaget considered reflexes to be the "building blocks" of cognitive development from birth to 1 month. Primary circular reactions predominate from ages 1 to 4 months. They involve simple motor habits that center around the baby's own body (e.g., thumb sucking). Tertiary circular reactions predominate from ages 12 to 18 months and involve varying an original action on an external object to see what happens. occurs when a baby's action gets a pleasurable or interesting response from an object or other person, which then leads the baby to repeat the action.

Answer 95

This is some evidence that the benefits of authoritative parenting are modified by family ethnicity or culture. For example, L. Sternberg et al. report that the authoritative style is beneficial for the school success of white and Hispanic students but that, for Asian- and African-Americans, this style does not predict school achievement

Answer 96

Structural (physical) abnormalities are most likely to occur when a pregnant woman consumes alcohol during the first trimester. Alcohol consumption in the second and third trimesters is associated more with behavioral and psychological deficits.

Answer 97

Harlow and Harlow's (1969) research would have helped you answer this question. In their studies, infant monkeys were reared in isolation or with one of two types (wire mesh or cloth) of surrogate mothers. Results indicated that tactile contact is the crucial element in the development of attachment: Infant monkeys consistently preferred cloth mothers to wire mothers even when food was given via the wire mother.

Answer 98

In a frequently cited study investigating the emergence of self-recognition, J. Brooks-Gunn and M. Lewis had mothers wipe the noses of their babies, ages 9 to 24 months, with a red dye, and then place the babies in front of a mirror. Results indicated that about 30% of the 18-month-old babies recognized themselves in the mirror (i.e., they rubbed the red spot on their own noses when they saw their reflection), while 60% of the 21-month-old babies did so (Social cognition and the acquisition of self, New York, Plenum, 1979).

Answer 99

The studies have generally shown that younger children have less trouble adjusting to a stepparent than do older school-age children and adolescents. In addition, while research on the impact of the child's gender on adjustment to a stepparent is not entirely consistent, most studies have found that girls have more adjustment problems than boys do or, alternatively, that gender does not have a substantial impact on adjustment.

Answer 100

The concept of mechanisms that protect people against the psychological risks associated with adversity is discussed in relation to four main processes: 1) reduction of risk impact, 2) reduction of negative chain reactions, 3) establishment and maintenance of self-esteem and self-efficacy, and 4) opening up of opportunities. The mechanisms operating at key turning points in people's lives must be given special attention. Risk

Answer 101

Most adults have an automatic physiological response to an infant's cries, with the pain cry producing the strongest response.

Answer 102

Vygotsky believed that the self-talk of young children helps them integrate language with thought and thought with action. According to Vygotsky, children use self-talk to guide their actions, especially when working on difficult or confusing tasks.

Answer 103

Females are more concerned with caring, compassion, and responsibility to others. Gilligan created a stage model that emphasized these concerns. Level 1 orientation of individual survival Transition 1 --From selfishness to responsibility -- one is connected to others Level 2: Goodness as self sacrifice (sacrifice of one's own desires for those of others) Transition 2__ From Goodness to Truth (focus is on coordinating one's responsibilities to self and others) Level 3- Morality of Nonviolence (no one should be hurt)

Answer 104

The stronger relationship between judgment and action at higher stages is attributable to two factors: first, the range of actions suggested by the individual's judgment narrows; and, second, the individual experiences an increasing sense of responsibility to act. Although Kohlberg believed that there is a positive relationship between moral judgment and moral action, he proposed that this relationship is much stronger at higher levels of moral development.

Answer 105

The brain develops both before and after birth in an orderly sequence. At birth, the infant's brain is about one-fourth the size of an adult brain. The cortex is not well-developed at birth, which suggests that newborn behaviors are primarily reflexive (i.e., mediated by the lower centers of the brain). Some areas of the cortex (e.g., those involved in problem-solving, self-concept, and planning) do not fully develop until adolescence or early adulthood. Note: The diencephalon consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus and is sufficiently well-developed at birth to allow for critical functions that are necessary for life. Like the diencephalon, the midbrain is relatively well-developed at birth. The cerebellum is involved in motor coordination, and the motor areas of the brain develop prior to the areas governing the higher cognitive functions.

Answer 106

An image presented to the left visual field will be processed by the right hemisphere which controls the left hand. Therefore, the patient will be able to perform this task. keep in mind that (1) language is controlled by the left hemisphere in most people and (2) most functions are controlled contralaterally but that olfaction is an exception to this general rule.

Answer 107

Critical period Note: A sensitive period is longer in duration and more flexible than a critical period. Language, for example, is believed to have a sensitive period: Once the optimal period for being exposed to language has passed, the individual may still be able to develop language skills (although it may be more difficult to do so).

Answer 108

fluid intelligence begins to deline in the late twenties to early thirties, while crystallized intelligence continues to increase until age 60 or late. The concepts of fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc) were introduced in 1963 by the psychologist Raymond Cattell. According to Cattell's psychometrically-based theory, general intelligence (g) is subdivided into gf and gc. Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve novel reasoning problems and is correlated with a number of important skills such as comprehension, problem solving, and learning. Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, involves the ability to deduce secondary relational abstractions by applying previously learned primary relational abstractions.

Answer 109

gender role has a greater impact than biological sex, with androgyny being associated with the highest levels of self-esteem. The study by Hall and Halberstadt and subsequent studies have generally confirmed that androgyny (which combines masculine and feminine characteristics and preferences) is associated with the highest levels of self-esteem in both boys and girls. Some studies have also found that masculinity, to a somewhat lesser degree, is associated with higher levels of self-esteem than femininity in both boys and girls

Answer 110

Babies can initially distinguish between speech sounds that are and are not part of their own language. This ability is subsequently lost, however, around the same time they begin to understand meaningful speech - i.e., at about 9 to 11 months of age.

Answer 111

Egalitarian Buhrmester and W. Furman found a combination of closeness and conflict among siblings in middle childhood with a trend toward less conflict and greater egalitarianism with increasing age (Perceptions of sibling relationships during middle childhood and adolescence, Young siblings- prosocial, play oriented behaviors middle-childhood- paradoxical combination; close/conflict, cooperation/competition sibling rivalry increases with same gender siblings who are 1.5 to 3 years difference in age and inconsistent parenting. Adolescence less time together less emotionally intense and friction declines when they start to view each other as equals. Close as siblings closer as adults.

Answer 112

A baby with insecure/ambivalent attachment is very distressed when separated from his/her mother but is angry and resistant to contact when she returns. A baby with insecure/avoidant attachment shows little distress when separated from his/her mother and ignores or avoids her when she returns. A baby with a secure attachment is mildly upset when separated from his or her mother and then actively seeks contact with her when she returns.

Answer 113

The mid-life transition occurs between the ages of 40 and 45 and is characterized by a realization that the dream is not satisfying and/or will not be accomplished. Following the dream (goal or vision for the future) is characteristic of the "entry life structure for early adulthood" stage, which occurs from ages 22 to 28. Formulation of the dream is characteristic of the "early adult transition," which occurs from age 17 to 22. Realization of the dream is characteristic of the "culmination of early adult life structure" stage, which occurs from ages 33 to 45.

Answer 114

Sociocultural theory zone of approximal development scaffolding: instruction, assistance, and support and is most effective when it involves modeling, providing cues and encouraging the child to think about alternative plans of actions. Symbolic play (make believe play) provides a child with a zone of proximal development and enables the child to practice behaviors in situations that required less precision and accuracy then would be required in reality. Children often talk out loud when performing tasks which is self directed (private) speech different from Piaget's egocentrism. This helps the child to organize their own behaviors and self directed speech becomes internalized as we grow. reciprocal teaching.

Answer 115

two or more X Chromosomes Turner: Single X Chromosome Down: extra chromosome 21

Answer 116

1- Rubella = Measles-Rash 2- Cytomegalovirus - Herpes 3- HIV 4- Malnutrition 5-stress 6- newborn's weighing below their 10th percentile for gestation age

Answer 117

Childhood amnesia: episodic memory- prior age 3 or 4 age negatively impacts explicit over implicit memory greatest decline in recent long term ( secondary memory followed by working memory aspects of short term memory But, remote long term memory, memory span and sensory member is not affected by age Episodic is most adversely affected by age compared to semantic and procedural and metamemory is moderately affected

Answer 118

Authoritative parenting is more predictive of internal conscience for children 6 years later for fearful and anxious toddlers that for those who are not anxious and not fearful,

Answer 119

Membership knowledge, gender typicality, gender contentedness, felt pressure for gender conformity, intergroup bias 1-intergroup bias gender contentedness gender typicality model predicts that a person's psychosocial adjustment is related to their status on these components.

Answer 120

Research found that gender identity had a greater impact than biological sex on self esteem and that for both females and males, androgyny (combination of femininity and masculinity) and to a lesser degree masculinity were associated with higher levels of self esteem than was femininity Androgyny: is linked to greater flexibility when coping with difficult situations, higher levels of life satisfaction, greater comfort in one's sexuality.

Answer 121

age 6 m notice a difference 4 years are able to label into racial groups 10 years children understand the social connotations of racial differences. Research Black children preferred white doll= negative self image Children preferred same race peers and this increased from ages 3 to 6 for whites but decreased for blacks

Answer 122

Bowlby's attachment theory was influenced by a ethology and evolutionary theory that stressed the importance of a infant's exposure to the mother during the critical period of the infant's first year. Infant's are born with a biological predisposition-- programed to cry, smile, and vocalize Results: internal working model

Answer 123

Social Referencing: 6 m. Separation anxiety: 6 to 8 months, peaks at 14 to 18m Stranger Anxiety: 8 to 10 months continues to age 2

Answer 124

the family experiences high levels of stress, parents have certain personality characteristics, child has a difficult temperament

Answer 125

self efficacy beliefs: easier to perform aggressive acts then inhibit, belief that aggression will be followed by positive consequences including reduced aversive behaviors by others little regret little remorse hostile attribution bias

Answer 126

In their longitudinal research, Gottman and his colleagues investigated the factors that contribute to marital dissolution. Additional information about their research is provided in the Lifespan Development chapter of the written study materials. Gottman's cascade theory of marital dissolution predicts that a couple's ability to resolve inevitable conflicts is the key to a lasting relationship.

Answer 127

The fastest rate of vocabulary increase occurs between the ages of 30 and 36 months. During this period, the child's vocabulary increases from 300-400 words to about 1000 words. Note: Between the ages of 36 to 42 months, the child's grammatical accuracy and sentence complexity increases. His or her vocabulary also increases but the rate of increase is not as great as between 30 and 36 months.

Answer 128

Piaget believed that young children lie spontaneously (unintentionally) and that children do not begin to intentionally lie until age 7 or 8.

Answer 129

Premoral stage: little concern for rules. Heteronomous morality ( 7 to 10) The autonomous stage begins by age 10 or 11. Children in this stage base their judgments of behavior primarily on the intentions of the actor. View rules as arbitrary and as being alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to change them. young children- "spontaneous liars) 7 or 8- intentionally lie 10 or 11 recognize that they can be deceived by others.

Answer 130

The research has shown that older adults typically recall recent and remote events better than intermediate events. he term "reminiscence bump" is used to refer to the greater memory for events that occurred during adolescence and early adulthood. 10 to 30 yrs old

Answer 131

One of the more consistent findings of the research is that parental conflict is a major cause of maladjustment in children in both intact and divorced families. Conflict (disharmony) has been found to be more critical than the separation. Children of divorced parents show less maladjustment when the conflict between their parents is minimal.

Answer 132

his is a difficult question, but you may have been able to identify the correct answer if you remembered that Vygotsky viewed cognitive development as being initially interpersonal (which refers to the child's interactions with others) and then intrapersonal (which occurs when the child internalizes what he or she has learned). Internalization is a key concept in Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development. For example, he described language development as a process involving a transition from social (external) speech to private (self-directed) speech to internal speech. In other words, speech first serves a social function (social speech); is then used to direct, plan, and evaluate one's own actions (private speech); and then acts as a tool for thinking (internal speech).

Answer 133

Researchers often use habituation to assess information processing skills in infants. Studies using this technique have found that recognition memory skills are apparent at a very early age. By three months of age, infants habituate to visual stimuli - i.e., show less response to the second presentation of a stimulus for periods up to 24 hours. This is interpreted as indicating that the infant recognizes the stimulus. Note: By 7 months, infants begin to show signs of recall memory.

Answer 134

Researchers who classify parenting styles in terms demandingness and responsiveness distinguish between four styles, which represent different combinations of levels of these characteristics. Answer A is correct: A combination of high demandingness and high responsiveness is characteristic of authoritative parents. Note, however, that the demands of authoritative parents are reasonable and involve setting and enforcing appropriate limits. Note: A combination of high demandingness and low responsiveness is characteristic of authoritarian parents. A combination of low demandingness and high responsiveness is characteristic of permissive parents. A combination of low demandingness and low responsiveness is characteristic of uninvolved parents.

Answer 135

Researchers have distinguished between three types of cries in infants. Mothers and other caretakers have confirmed that each cry is associated with a different meaning. Even very young infants seem to be able to communicate that they are either hungry, angry or in pain by the nature of their cries.

Answer 136

Piaget proposed a sequence of moral development involving three stages: premoral, moral realism, and moral relativism. Rules and the consequences of violating a rule are the basis of moral judgment during the stage of moral realism (which is also called the heteronomous stage).

Answer 137

If you've had any experience with young children, you may have been able to answer this question. Note that it's asking about MOST children. Answer C is correct: The experts seem to vary somewhat with regard to this issue, but most consider 20 to 24 months a good time to begin toilet training.

Answer 138

Research on the relationship between age and second-language learning is very inconsistent and has not led to a consensus of opinion; and, perhaps, the best conclusion is that the relationship is mediated by a number of factors. Answer A is correct: While there is evidence that adolescents and adults initially make faster progress in acquiring a second language (especially with regard to syntax and morphology), individuals exposed to a second language during childhood are more likely to speak with a native accent. In other words, pronunciation is the one aspect of language learning for which there is fairly consistent evidence that "younger is better."

Answer 139

Based on her research with terminally ill patients, Kubler-Ross (1969) identified five stages in coming to terms with one's own death. denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Answer 140

Since the gene for colorblindness is carried on the X chromosome, colorblindness would have to come from the mother for sons and from both the mother and father for daughters. However, since there's no history of colorblindness in the mother's family, this will not occur. -Neither son or daughter

Answer 141

PKU (phenylketonuria) is an inherited disorder that can cause Intellectual Disability: only in individuals who are homozygous for the condition. PKU is an autosomal recessive condition, which means that an individual must have two recessive genes (i.e., be homozygous) to have the disorder.

Answer 142

Self-talk (talking aloud to oneself) is also referred to as private speech and is exhibited by children ages 4 through 9. Vygotsky considered children's self-talk to be an essential contributor to cognitive development. Answer B is correct: Vygotsky believed that the self-talk of young children helps them integrate language with thought and thought with action. According to Vygotsky, children use self-talk to guide their actions, especially when working on difficult or confusing tasks.

Answer 143

Tertiary circular reactions involve exploring the properties of objects by acting on them in new ways -- e.g., twisting and turning a shaped object so that it fits through a hole. Primary circular reactions are simple motor habits that involve the infant's body (e.g., thumbsucking). Secondary circular reactions include simple repetitive actions that help the infant gain voluntary control over his/her behavior. Coordinated secondary reactions include intentional, goal-directed behaviors that combine secondary circular reactions into new, more complex action sequences.

Answer 144

the research has found that, overall, the outcomes for neglected children are better than those for rejected children. In addition, neglected children are more likely to experience a change in peer status when they change schools or social groups. neglected children are better adjusted than rejected children and are more likely to experience a change in social status when they change social groups.

Answer 145

Kohlberg originally described his stages of moral development in his doctoral dissertation. Kohlberg's approach to studying moral development involves investigating how the individual responds to a moral dilemma. The first dilemma that he developed (and used in his dissertation) was the Heinz dilemma, which involved a poor man who needed a drug for his dying wife. -preconvention: punishment and obedience -instrumental hedonism-avoid punishment and get rewards. -convention: good boy/Good Girl -right action-liked of socially approved: Law and order: doing your duty to be good -post convention morality- Morality for contract. democratically accepted law-decisions based on what is good for all and justice (morality of individual principles of conscience)

Answer 146

he age at which children understand that death is irreversible and universal varies, depending on certain factors. In general, however, most children achieve this understanding at about ten years of age.