memory Flashcards

(47 cards)

1
Q

What is coding ?

A

the format in which information is stored.

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2
Q

describe the research into CODING

A

Baddeley
Gave different lists of words for participants to remember.
Group 1- acoustically similar (cat, cab, can)
Group 2- acoustically dissimilar (pit, cow, grass)
Group 3- semantically similar (great, large, big)
Group 4- semantically dissimilar (good, huge, got)

Participants where then asked to recall the list, immediately, an hour later, a week later ect

when recalling immediately (STM) then they tend to do worse with acoustically similar words.
When recalling after 20 mins (LTM)
They did worse on semantically desimilar words.

This suggests that information is coded acoustically in the STM, but semantically in the LTM.

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3
Q

evaluate research into coding

A

+Baddleys study shows a clear difference between the two memory stores. Later research was made which supported his theory (multi store model)

-artificial stimuli.
not often would you be asked to repeat words, so produced invalid results, with limited applications

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4
Q

define capacity.

A

The amount of information that a memory store can can hold.

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5
Q

describe the research into capacity

A

Digital Span -Jacobs
read out four digits to PPTS who were asked to recall in the correct order. If correct, Jacobs read out 5 digits and asked to recall etc. when recall was inaccurate, then that was a persons digital span.

Miller- noted that the span of the STM is about 7 items +-2

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6
Q

evaluate research into capacity

A

+a valid study
Jacobs study has been replicated and found similar results despite Jacobs study being outdated.

-millers magic number my be overestimating
a research found that it may be only 4+-2

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7
Q

Define Duration

A

The length of time an information can be held in memory

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8
Q

describe search into duration

A

Duration of STM- Peterson and Peterson.
tested 24 students in 8 trials each.
student given a constant syllable in each trial such as (YCG). Also given a three digit number. PPTS told to count backwards until told to stop to prevent rehearsal, then say their Syllable.
recall was 80% after 3 secs, 3% at 18 seconds
concluded that STM duration is around 18 seconds.

Duration of LTM
Bahrick
studied 392 American PPTS aged 17-74
Photobooks from high schools where used and PPTS where asked to recall peoples faces
within 15 yrs of graduation -90%recall
after 48 years of graduation - 70% recall
this shows that LTM may last up to a lifetime

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9
Q

evaluate research into duration

A

+Bahricks study has high external validity as it was investigating meaningful relevant pieces of information. Shows a more accurate use of LTM recall.
-hard to generalise, only used Americans

-Peterson and Petersons work was artificial, lacking external validity
-ungeneralisable as used a small sample size.

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10
Q

What is the multi-store model of memory?

A

ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN (1968)
*information flows through a system.
*stimulus from the environment- sensory register-(attention)- short term memory-(rehearsal) long term memory.
long term to short term- retrieval/ maintaince rehearsal.
*STM- coded acoustically. lasts about 18 secs
*LTM-coded semantically- lasts a lifetime

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11
Q

evaluate the multistore model

A

+studies have shown differences between the STM and the LTM (Baddeley) we mix up words that sound differently within the STM but mix up words that have similar meanings within the LTM

-research found that there maybe different short term memory stores. studies on KF with amnesia found that he didn’t remember words spoken to him but remembered ones he read to himself.

-prolongued rehearsal is not needed for transfer to the LTM
researchers found that its not the amount of times you rehearse things that it goes into LTM but types of rehearsal.
linking info to existing knowledge- LTM

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12
Q

what are the types of Long term memory?

A

epidodic- memory of events for example a birthday party

semantic- knowledge of the world for example the capital of France is Paris

procedural-skills and how we do things for example riding a bike

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13
Q

evaluate types of long term memory

A

+Clinical evidence
case of HM- episodic memory was damaged, but could still remember how to play piano or do things

+real world application
allows understanding of how to help people with memory problems. When you get older, people struggle to remember specifically semantic memories. Interventions can be used to help people maintain this knowledge.

-conflicting neuroimaging evidence
there is not an agreeable place where each memory store lives, with researchers finding semantic memories located on the prefrontal cortex, which may be conflicted

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14
Q

describe the working memory model

A

BADDELEY AND HITCH(1974)
Explanation of the short term memory.
Central executive- suporvisory role- monitors incoming data allocates subsystems
phonological loop- auditory information.
+the phonological store and artilatpry process
Visual spatial sketch pad-stores visual info
Episodic buffer- temporary store of information.

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15
Q

evaluate the working memory model

A

+clinical evidence
Shallice and Elizabeth case of KF who had brain damage
had poor stability for for auditory information, but could process visual information normally.

-lack of clarity over the nature of central executive- Bddeley recognised that the central executive was the most important but least understood part of the working memory model, suggesting that the CE is unsatisfactory.

-research into the working memory model are all inferences, using educated guesses which may be wrong

-only using lab studies

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16
Q

what is interference?

A

Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or more memories to become distorted.

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17
Q

What is proactive interference?

A

When an older memory interferes with a newer one.
e.g. having difficulty remembering new names as you have remembered so many names in the past.

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18
Q

What is retroactive interference?

A

A newer memory interferes with an older one
e.g. remembering so many new names you struggle to remember older ones

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19
Q

outline research into interference.

A

MCGOECH AND MCDONALDS (1931)
*PPTS learnt ten words fully.
Then learnt a new list of words either synonyms, antonyms, unrelated, constant syllables,three digit number, and a control group.
findings- synonyms produced worst recall
when things are similar they interfere with each other.

20
Q

EVALUATE research into interference

A

+real world interference
researcher -Baddeley and Fitch- asked rugby players to recall the names of the rugby players who they had played against this season. Players who played the most, had the worse recall. This shows interference happens in real life.

-can be overcome using cues.
Tulvin and Psotka- PPTS given a list of words to remember. Recall was highest for the first list, but defined for each other list. When given a cue, the recall rose again. suggesting that interference causes temporary memory loss.

+Support from drug studies
Coenen and Gilles gave PPTs list of words to remember, and recall. They found that if you recalled, sober then took a drug, recall would be better
suggesting that forgetting can be due to interference as the drug was able to reach into your brain more.

21
Q

What is retrieval failure?
(explanations for forgetting)

A

Occurs when we do not have the necessary cues to be able to access a memory. The memory is available, but only accessible if the right cue is given.

22
Q

what is a cue?

A

A trigger which allows us to access a memory. They may be meaningful, or simply link to the environment.

23
Q

What is the Encoding specificity principle?

A

Tulving-
A cue has to be present at encoding and retrieval for it to be useful

24
Q

Define context state forgetting.

A

recall depends on an external cue e.g. weather or place.

25
Describe research into context-state forgetting.
GODDEN AND BADDLEY (1975) -40 divers. Learnt a list of words either on land or underwater, and asked to recall on either land or water. f- recall was 40% lower in non matching conditions. this shows that a mismatch of cues from learning to recall cause retrieval failure -may be ungeneraliable, as used only 40 males
26
Define state-dependent forgetting.
recall depends on an internal cue e.g. feeling, being drunk ect.
27
outline research into State depending forgetting
CARTER AND CASSADAY (1998) -Gave antihistamine drugs to ppts which had a slight drowsy effect. This classed as the non normal condition. Ppts had to learn lists of words and passages to recall. -learn on drug-recall on drug -learn on drug-recall sober -learn sober-recall sober -learn sober-recall on drug finding- when mismatch in internal cues was not matched- worse recall happened this shows earn internal cues are absent, there is more forgetting
28
Evaluate retrieval failure as an explanation of forgetting
+Can be used to help reduce everyday forgetting. Baddeley suggests we should pay attention to cues, making an effort to try and recall information where you learnt it. +impressive amount of research support memory researchers Eysenck and Keane- retrieval failure is the reason for forgetting from the LTM Highly controlled evidence coming form lab studies
29
What is an eye witness testimony?
The abliity of people to recall details of events such as crime, which they observed. This can be affected by things such as anxiety and misleading information
30
What is misleading information?
Incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after an event. This can take many forms, from leading questions to post event discussion.
31
define 'leading question'
a questions which by the way it is phrased encourages a certain answer.
32
Describe the research into leading questions as an explanation of misleading information
LOFUS AND PALMER(1974) *Asked 45 students to watch car crash clips and then asked questions about what they had just seen. PPts where asked to describe how fast the cars where travelling when they - one another. A different verb was used in the sentence- Bumped, hit, smashed, collidied, findings- the verb contacted averaged 30 mph whilst smashed 40 mph this suggests that eyewitness recall is effected by the leading questions.
33
define 'post event discussion'
occurs when there is two or more witnessed to an event, witnesses may discuss what they have seen, influencing each others recall of the event.
34
Describe research into post event discussion as an explanation of misleading information.
GABBERT ET AL (2003) studied ppts in pairs- each ppts watched a video of the same crime, but from different points of views. Then they were allowed to talk. f-70% of ppts brought up things they did not watch, but were told from the other ppts the control group was 0% (no discussion allowed) evidence of memory conformity, and show how when discussed memory can become distored and change.
35
Evaluate misleading information. (factors affecting eyewitness testimony)
+real world application important to take into account by cooperations such as the police, as the consequences of misleading info can be serious and cause inaccurate recall of event. - influencing faulty convictions or inaccurate recall of events -may be invalid, as Loftus and Palmers PPTS watched the videos in a lab, which is much different from real life, as it doesn't take into account extraneous variables.
36
What is anxiety?
a state of emotional and physical arousal. Having worried thoughts or feelings of tension, high heart rate ect. It can affect the accuracy of recall.
37
Describe how anxiety can have a Negative effect on recall?
Weapon focus- Anxiety prevents us from paying attention to important cues, so recall is worse.
38
Outline research into the negative consequences of anxiety.
JOHNSON AND SCOTT -lab study. - Participants were set in a waiting room - in a low anxiety condition, they heard a casual conversation with a man and saw him walk out carrying a pen and grease on his hands -in the high anxiety condition participants overheard a heated argument accompanied with the sound of breaking glass and walked out the room holding a knife covered in blood. f-49% of participants were able to identify the man carrying the pen but only 33% was able to identify the man holding the knife This is because PPTS experience higher levels of anxiety with the high anxiety conditions, meaning they under went the TUNNEL THEORY where people focuses only o one thing.
39
Evaluate anxiety has a negative effect on recall- weapon focus.
+Research support. Researchers Valentine and Mesout support weapon focus, used heart rate to test this, splitting people into low and high anxiety groups. Anxiety affected recall onto specific events -may not have tested anxiety reasons why the PPTS focused on the weapon is because they were surprised with what they had seen rather than scared this suggests that weapon focus is due to unusualness, not anxiety
40
describe how anxiety can have a positive effect on accurate recall?
Witnessing a distressing event causes arousal within the body, triggering fight or flight response, increasing alertness. This may improve recall as people become more aware of cues.
41
Outline research into Anxiety has a positive effect on recall.
YUILLE AND CUTSHALL Studied an actual shooting in Canada there were 21 witnesses 13 took part in the study. They were interviewed five months after the incident and compared to the police interviews. the effect was determined by the number of details supporting each account. there was very little change in accuracy over five months The people who had felt most stressed during the incident recalled the most accurately.
42
What is the Yerkes Dodson Law (anxiety on eyewitness testimony)
Yerkes and Dodson the relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted U too little arousal causes poor performance too much arousal causes poor performance just the right amount of arousal causes optimum performance.
43
Evaluate positive effect of anxiety- eyewitness testimony
+ evidence support researchers interviewed witnesses who had experienced bank robberies those directly involved and had the most anxiety had the best recall
44
What is a cognitive interview?
A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories.
45
outline the four stages of the cognitive interview
FISHER AND GEISELMAN (1992) 1.REPORT EVERYTHING - encouraged to report every little detail of the event. 2.REINSTATE THE CONTEXT- promoted to return to the 'scene of crime' in their heads 3.REVERSE ORDER- should be recalled in a different order to what happened, this can prevent people filling in gaps with what they would expect 4.CHANGE PERSPECTIVE- they should recall from another persons perspective
46
What is the enhanced cognitive interview?
Fisher et al. developed some additional elements of the cognitive interview. e.g. eye contact, reducing anxiety, getting PPts to speak slowly.
47
Evaluate the cognitive interview.
+Supporting evidence that it actually works A meta analysis by a researcher combined data from a cognitive interview comparing it with a norma police interview This showed a 41% increase of accurate information recalled. -Not all parts may be useful researchers found that report everything and restate the context produce great recall whilst the other are useless -impractical time consuming, and takes training by the police