Reptiles

Question 1

Kalicephalus sp.

Answer 1

Host: Snakes
Family: Ancylostomatidae
Site: Embedded in the esophageal, gastric and intestinal mucosa
Unique features: Anemia
Treatment: Fenbendazole, Oxyfendazole PO and Ivermectin SQ

Question 2

Ophidascaris sp.

Answer 2

Host: snakes
Snake ascarid

Question 3

Polydelphus sp.

Answer 3

Host: snakes
Snake ascarid

Question 4

Angusticaecum sp.

Answer 4

Host: turtle
Turtle ascarid

Question 5

Sulcascaris sp.

Answer 5

Host: snakes
Snake ascarid

Question 6

Giardia, Hexamita, Trichomonas

Answer 6

Taxonomy: Phylum Sarcomastigophora, Class Mastigophora.
Site of Infection: Urogenital and gastrointestinal systems. Giardia species are found in the small intestine. Hexamita natric is found in the stomach and small intestine.
Definitive Host: Snakes, lizards, chelonians, and crocodilians.
Transmission is direct via ingestion of the organism or cysts passed in the feces.
Pathology: Often found in asymptomatic animals, but heavy burdens may cause inflammatory bowel disease or nephritis. Clinical signs can include anorexia, weight loss, diarrhea, melena, frank hemorrhage, and severe dehydration.

Question 7

Entamoeba invadens

Answer 7

Taxonomy: Phylum Sarcomastigophora, Class Sarcodina
**Site of Infection: **Primarily intestines; gastric and hepatic infections also occur. Minor damage occurs in the lungs, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys.
**Definitive Host: **Snakes and lizards (susceptible hosts). Chelonians are typically asymptomatic carriers/reservoirs. Crocodilians are relatively unaffected.
Transmission is direct by ingestion of the quadrinucleate cyst passed in the feces.
Most Important Pathology: One of the most important pathogens of captive snakes and lizards, often resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. Causes severe lesions in the gastrointestinal tract and liver. Lesions include discrete, irregular ulcers in the colon and focal necrosis in the liver.

Question 8

Cryptosporidium sp., including C. serpentis and C. saurophilum

Answer 8

Taxonomy: Phylum Apicomplexa, Class Coccidia.
Site of Infection: Stomach (C. serpentis in snakes); intestinal tract (C. saurophilum in lizards).
Definitive Host: Snakes, lizards, and chelonians.
Transmission is fecal-oral via ingestion of sporulated oocysts.
**Most Important Pathology: **C. serpentis causes proliferation of gastric mucous cells and gastric swelling in snakes. C. saurophilum causes enteritis in lizards. Clinical signs often include anorexia, weight loss, vomiting/regurgitation, and dehydration.

Question 9

Eimeria spp.

Answer 9

Taxonomy: Phylum Apicomplexa, Class Coccidia.
**Site of Infection: **Intestine (most common); gallbladder, bile duct, or rarely kidneys in some snakes.
Definitive Host: Snakes, lizards, chelonians, and crocodilians.

Reptiles are infected after ingesting sporulated oocysts.
Most Important Pathology: Usually mild. Severe cases may result in epithelial ulceration and fibrosis, and septicemia. E. bitis can cause denuding of the mucosa and extensive fibrosis of the gallbladder submucosa in garter snakes.

Question 10

Haemogregarina, Hepatozoon, Karyolyses

Answer 10

**Taxonomy: **Phylum Apicomplexa, Class Coccidia. Suborder Adeleorina (includes Haemogregarina and Hepatozoon).
Site of Infection: Blood (erythrocytes, leukocytes), spleen, and liver.
Definitive Host: Snakes, lizards, chelonians, and crocodilians (reptilian definitive host).
Intermediate Host (IH): Arthropod vectors are required. Transmission occurs either by ingestion of the infected invertebrate (e.g., tick ingestion for Hepatozoon mauritanicum) or by the invertebrate consuming a blood meal (e.g., leech/tick transmission for Haemogregarina).Most Important
Pathology: Generally nonpathogenic. Heavy infections may cause anemia and distortion of the infected erythrocyte.

Question 11

Plasmodium spp., Fallisia, Haemoproteus, Saurocytozoon

Answer 11

Taxonomy: Phylum Apicomplexa, Class Haemosporidia.
**Site of Infection: **Blood.Definitive Host: Lizards, snakes, and chelonians (lizards are most commonly infected).
Intermediate Host (IH): Arthropod vectors are required for the life cycle. Transmission occurs via the bite of a blood-sucking arthropod (e.g., sandfly bite for Plasmodium mexicanum).Most Important
Pathology: Most infections are asymptomatic, but heavy infections result in anemia. Heavy infections of P. floridense sometimes cause death.

Question 12

Renifers: Dasymetra, Lechriorchis, Ochetosoma, Zeugorchis

Answer 12

Taxonomy: Trematodes, Digenean.
**Site of Infection: **Lung, mouth, and digestive tract of snakes.
Definitive Host: Snakes.
Intermediate Host (IH): Gastropod (e.g., snail) (1st IH); Tadpoles (2nd IH, encysted metacercariae).
**Most Important Pathology: **Usually harmless, but heavy infections cause pulmonary irritation, dyspnea, and weight loss.

Question 13

Spirorchis spp.

Answer 13

Taxonomy: Trematodes, Order Strigeatida, Family Spirorchiidae.
Site of Infection: Cardiovascular system (heart, blood vessels, mesenteric arterioles).
Definitive Host: Turtles.
Intermediate Host (IH): Snail. Transmission occurs when cercariae released from the snail penetrate the turtle’s skin.
Most Important Pathology: Eggs lodging in capillary beds cause ischemic necrosis and potentially organ failure. Massive infections resulting in granulomas in the intestinal wall can be fatal.

Question 14

Diphyllobothrium erinacei

Answer 14

Taxonomy: Cestodes.
Site of Infection: Subcutaneous tissues or muscle (Plerocercoid larvae).
Definitive Host: Mammals
Intermediate Host (IH): Amphibians/fish are intermediate hosts. Copepods are the 1st IH.
Most Important Pathology: Larvae typically do not cause overt clinical disease.

Question 15

Spirometra mansonoides

Answer 15

**Taxonomy: **Cestodes.
Site of Infection: Subcutaneous tissues or muscle (Larvae).
**Definitive Host: **Dog, cat, or other carnivores
Intermediate Host (IH): Copepod (1st IH); Amphibians (2nd IH/paratenic host).
**Most Important Pathology: **Pathologic effects and clinical diseases are similar to those of D. erinacei.

Question 16

Rhabdias spp., Entomelas spp., Strongyloides spp.

Answer 16

Taxonomy: Nematodes, Superfamily Rhabditoidea.
Site of Infection: Respiratory tract/Lungs (Rhabdias, Entomelas); Intestinal tract (Strongyloides).
Definitive Host: Snakes (Rhabdias, Strongyloides) and lizards (Entomelas).Intermediate Life cycle involves free-living and parasitic cycles. Infection by ingestion or percutaneous penetration of infective third-stage larvae.
Most Important Pathology: Severe inflammatory response and pneumonia (Rhabdias, Entomelas). Severe cases can be fatal, presenting with dyspnea and collapse. Strongyloides causes numerous ulcerations in the intestine and enteritis.

Question 17

Alaeuris spp., Ozolaimus spp.

Answer 17

Taxonomy: Nematodes, Superfamily Oxyuroidea (Pinworms).
Site of Infection: Large intestine.
**Definitive Host: **Lizards, chelonians (especially herbivorous species).
Direct infection by ingestion of the embryonated egg.
Most Important Pathology: Generally asymptomatic. Rare cases reported where severe infection contributed to intestinal intussusception.

Question 18

Tachygonetria spp.

Answer 18

Taxonomy: Nematodes, Superfamily Oxyuroidea.
Site of Infection: Large intestine.
Definitive Host: Tortoises (European and African).
Direct infection by ingestion of the embryonated egg.
Most Important Pathology:Heavy infections are common and usually benign, but intestinal impaction and death have been reported.

Question 19

Diaphanocephalus spp. and Kalicephalus spp.

Answer 19

Taxonomy: Nematodes, Superfamily Strongyloidea (Hookworms).
Site of Infection: Alimentary tracts (stomach, intestine, esophagus).
Definitive Host: Snakes, less commonly lizards.
Intermediate Host (IH): Probably arthropods, based on method of infection, but life cycle is direct for reptiles through ingestion or percutaneous passage of larvae.
**Most Important Pathology: **Parasites ingest blood and cause significant ulceration. Can lead to anemia, gastrointestinal impactions, and may be fatal.

Question 20

Camallanus spp. and Spiroxys contortus

Answer 20

Taxonomy: Nematodes, Superfamily Spiruroidea
Site of Infection: Stomach and duodenum.
**Definitive Host: **Turtles.
Intermediate Host (IH): Indirect life cycle requires a copepod (1st IH) and sometimes an amphibian or fish (paratenic host).
Most Important Pathology: Parasites embed deeply, sometimes forming abscesses. Heavy worm burdens can result in gastric ulceration and bacteremia. Clinical signs include anorexia, weight loss, melena, and diarrhea.

Question 21

Foleyella spp.

Answer 21

Taxonomy: Nematodes, Superfamily Filaroidea.
Site of Infection: Body cavity (adult worm), subcutaneous tissue. Microfilariae are found in the blood.
**Definitive Host: **Lizards (lacertid lizards, Old World chameleons).
Intermediate Host (IH): Mosquito (Vector).
**Most Important Pathology: **Heavy microfilarial burdens could lead to thromboembolic disease. Clinical signs include weakness, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, and collapse.

Question 22

Neoechinorhynchus spp.

Answer 22

Taxonomy: Phylum Acanthocephala.
Site of Infection: Intestine.
Definitive Host:Turtles.
Intermediate Host (IH): Ostracod~seed shrimp (1st IH); snails (2nd IH, possibly optional).
Most Important Pathology: Heavy infections (200 to 700 worms) can cause intestinal blockage, rupture, and bacteremia. Causes inflammation and thickening of the mucosa.

Question 23

Cistudinomyia cistudinis

Answer 23

Taxonomy: Class Insecta, Order Diptera (Sarcophagid fly).
Site of Infection:Skin wounds (larvae causing myiasis).
Definitive Host:Turtles and tortoises.
Gravid female deposits first instar larvae directly into open wounds.
Most Important Pathology: Causes a serious and sometimes fatal myiasis. Larvae destroy tissue, and opportunistic bacterial infections are common.

Question 24

Ophionyssus natricis

Answer 24

Taxonomy: Class Arachnida, Suborder Mesostigmata (Mite).
Site of Infection: Skin, under the scales.
Definitive Host: Snakes (most common ectoparasite in captivity); lizards.
Most Important Pathology: Heavy infestations cause irritation, severe anemia, and death. It is a mechanical vector of Aeromonas hydrophila and implicated in the transmission of inclusion body disease.

Question 25

Armillifer, Porocephalus, Raillietiella, Sebekia spp.

Answer 25

**Taxonomy**: Class Pentastomida (Vermiform arthropods) **Site of Infection:** Lungs, bronchi, trachea, pharynx, oral cavity, and coelomic cavities (Adults). Larvae/Nymphs occur in various tissues. **Definitive Host:** Snakes, lizards, crocodilians. **Intermediate Host (IH): **Requires an intermediate host (e.g., fish, rodents, primates) that ingests the egg; the reptile definitive host consumes the infected IH. **Most Important Pathology: ** Majority of pathology is localized inflammation at the site of attachment. Most cases are asymptomatic, but heavy burdens can cause respiratory distress and dyspnea.