Social methodology

Question 1

Questionnaires

Answer 1

• provide a tool for data collection
• designed to gather a large amount of data
• by accessing a large sample

Question 2

how can questionnaires be administered

Answer 2

• by post
• face to face
• online

Question 3

which 2 types of information can questionnaires gather

Answer 3

• quantitative
• qualitative

Question 4

quantitative data

Answer 4

• numerical data
• measurements of quantity or amount

Question 5

how can quantitative data be objectively analysed

Answer 5

• easy to analyse
• percentages and other statistics can be calculated
• data can be presented in graphs/tables so efficiently communicated with others
• removes researcher bias

Question 6

strengths of quantitative data

Answer 6

• objectively analysed
• reliability

Question 7

when does quantitative data have reliability

Answer 7

• the way it is gathered is controlled sufficiently well for the test to be repeated to see if similar results are found
• quantitative data often comes from close ended questions in questionnaires

Question 8

weaknesses in quantitative data

Answer 8

• lacks validity due to social desirability
• answers given may show response bias

Question 9

when will quantitative data lack validity due to social desirability

Answer 9

• respondents may say what you think they should say

Question 10

when in quantitative data may answers show response bias

Answer 10

• if questions are listed so that responders are likely to be answering ‘no’ to a number of questions in a pattern they may continue to answer no out of habit
• respondent may have a personality trait to agree or disagree all the time

Question 11

qualitative data

Answer 11

• rich in detail or description
• usually in textual or narrative form

Question 12

strengths of qualitative data

Answer 12

• provides detailed information
• good validity

Question 13

qualitative data - detailed information

Answer 13

• allows for in depth analysis
• adding a useful understanding

Question 14

qualitative data - good validity

Answer 14

• comes from open ended questions
• respondents can say what they really think about an issue

Question 15

weaknesses - qualitative data

Answer 15

• may be subjective
• it is difficult to gather

Question 16

qualitative data - subjective

Answer 16

• opinion based not factual
• making it difficult to analyse and compare responses
• answers may be difficult to caterogise and hard to summarise

Question 17

qualitative data - difficult to gather

Answer 17

• respondents may be reluctant to give an in depth response
• data may take a long time to gather
• respondents may miss out open ended questions
• as it takes longer to write out answers

Question 18

open ended questions

Answer 18

• allow respondents to answer however they want
• generates qualitative data

Question 19

strengths of open ended questions

Answer 19

• gathers rich, detailed data
• participants can interpret the questions

Question 20

open ended questions - gathering rich, detailed data

Answer 20

• respondents are not forced into specific answers
• they can say what they want

Question 21

open ended questions - participants are able to interpret the questions

Answer 21

• increases validity as they enable participants to talk about what they really think

Question 22

disadvantages - close ended questions

Answer 22

• analysis may involve elements of subjectivity
• difficult to display results after analysis
• participants may not complete the questions

Question 23

open ended questions - subjectivity

Answer 23

• analysis may be difficult
• answers will be detailed and different to each other
• more prone to researcher bias

Question 24

open ended questions - difficult to display results after analysis

Answer 24

• answers are likely to be detailed and different to each other
• no graphs/tables
• averages cannot be calculated

Question 25

open ended questions - participants may not complete the questions

Answer 25

- as responses take longer - it is more difficult to think of the answer than to tick a box

Question 26

closed ended questions

Answer 26

- restrict respondents to a predetermined set of responses - generates quantitative data

Question 27

strengths of closed ended questions

Answer 27

- participants give standardised answers - closed ended questions provide reliability

Question 28

closed ended questions - participants give standardised answers

Answer 28

- numbers can be generated - analysis is straight-forward - as 1 set of responses can be compared fairly with another set

Question 29

closed ended questions - reliable

Answer 29

- questions and answer options are the same for all respondents - question wording can be used to make the question clear - if the meaning is the same = more reliable

Question 30

weaknesses of closed ended questions

Answer 30

- they force a response - range of choice answers reduce validity

Question 31

closed ended questions - force a response

Answer 31

- respondents have to choose from a set of answers - may not agree with any of the choices

Question 32

closed ended questions - range of choice answers reduce validity

Answer 32

- respondents may not be able to say what they want to say - answers may not be accurate - therefore invalid

Question 33

types of closed ended questions

Answer 33

- fixed choice - likert scales - ranked scale

Question 34

fixed choice questions

Answer 34

- closed ended questions which offer a fixed choice - such as yes/no - or a list of options

Question 35

example of fixed choice questions

Answer 35

- Do you own a pet : yes / no - How old are you ? (please circle) 18-40 yrs, 41-60 yrs, 61+yrs - Circle 3 adjectives that best describe your personality agreeable, selfish, happy, lonely, sporty, gentle

Question 36

Likert scale questions

Answer 36

- respondents select from a fixed set of choices to rate their opinion to a series of statements

Question 37

examples of Likert scale questions

Answer 37

- I like meeting new people (please circle) - Strongly agree (5), Agree (4), Neutral (3), Disagree (2), Strongly disagree (1)

Question 38

Ranked scale questions

Answer 38

- respondents rank their choices relative to other options

Question 39

Example - ranked scale questions

Answer 39

- rank the following list of animals in order in which you fear them - with 1 being the most feared and 5 the least feared - horse, rat, spider, rabbit, dog - _ _ _ _ _

Question 40

Strengths of questionnaires

Answer 40

- simple and clear - uses self report data - evidence = Cohrs et al - Pilot surveys - Same questions asked to all participants - Valid - Reliable

Question 41

Questionnaires - uses self report data

Answer 41

- direct - not likely to be affected by subjectivity of a researcher - participants are often subjective in a good way - keeping responses valid as data is about themselves

Question 42

Questionnaires - Cohrs et al

Answer 42

- tested whether peer report or self report data differs - self report data found that peers rate similar to self rated - high reliability

Question 43

Questionnaires - pilot surveys

Answer 43

- allows researchers to check questions for clarity - ensuring required information is gathered - feedback can be obtained - allows changes to be made

Question 44

Questionnaires - same questions are asked of all participants

Answer 44

- set procedure - little variation - answers shouldn't be affected by anything other than the opinion of the respondent

Question 45

Questionnaires - High validity

Answer 45

- they can be carried out by post - removing researcher bias - more valid as responses are real and not affected by someone else

Question 46

Questionnaires - reliable

Answer 46

- they can be repeated accurately - they use set procedures - replicable

Question 47

Questionnaires - weaknesses

Answer 47

- uses self report data - people may be in different moods - ethics - lacks validity - lacks reliability

Question 48

Questionnaires - self report data

Answer 48

- people can be biased when reporting their own feelings, views, attitudes, behaviours - due to social desirability - people may answer how they think they should answer

Question 49

Questionnaires - people may be in different moods

Answer 49

- have different ideas about their behaviours one day compared with another - data could be valid on the day asked - but may not be for everyday situations

Question 50

Questionnaires - ethics

Answer 50

- ensure questions asked aren't distressing for participants to answer

Question 51

Questionnaires - lacking validity

Answer 51

- Lying may occur due to demand characteristics - questions which give forced choice answers may hint at the aim of the questionnaire - so respondents may give answers they think researchers may want - lacking validity - open ended questions are often restricted in length - reducing validity - they usually have fixed questions so respondents can't expand on answers - less valid

Question 52

Questionnaires - lacking reliability

Answer 52

- the way questionnaires may be administered may vary - less reliable

Question 53

interviews

Answer 53

- involve a researcher asking questions in order to gather details from a respondent based of the aim of the study

Question 54

how are interviews carried out

Answer 54

- face to face - over the phone - online

Question 55

what is the best way to carry out an interview

Answer 55

- face to face

Question 56

why are interviews best held face to face

Answer 56

- interviewers have the opportunity to expand or clarify questions

Question 57

when is an interview chosen over a questionnaire

Answer 57

- if some questions need to be explored in more depth - when the respondent may need reassurance - when access is difficult

Question 58

access

Answer 58

- refers to reaching the participants - physically reaching them and finding them in the first place

Question 59

when is access difficult

Answer 59

- when data needs to be gathered from a child - data needs to be gathered from someone with mental health backgrounds

Question 60

types of interviews

Answer 60

- structured - unstructured - semi- structured

Question 61

structured interviews

Answer 61

- include pre-set questions in a specific order - follows a set format - there may be instructions on where/how to expand on answers (strongly planned)

Question 62

give an example of a structured interviews

Answer 62

- asking people questions on peoples obedience levels

Question 63

give an example on when structured interviews may take place

Answer 63

- over the phone - face to face

Question 64

Unstructured interviews

Answer 64

- usually gather qualitative data - as it starts with a loose aim - no pre-set questions - explore the responses given - not in a set format which allows the interviewer to explore the area with further quesions

Question 65

Semi - structured interviews

Answer 65

- has set questions - some of which can be explored further by the interview

Question 66

what data does semi-structured interviews produce

Answer 66

- quantitative - qualitative

Question 67

strengths of semi - structured interviews

Answer 67

- quantitative and qualitative data can offer insight - data can be compared between respondents - replicable - has set questions and the positives of an unstructured interview - allowing respondent to lead = valid data

Question 68

what kind of data do interviewers gather

Answer 68

- mainly qualitative - usually used when in depth and detailed data is needed - some quantitative

Question 69

in interviews, how is qualitative data usually presented

Answer 69

- in the form of a story / attitudes

Question 70

in interviews, how is quantitative data usually presented

Answer 70

- age - length of time in a job

Question 71

the less structured the interview, the more likely which type of data

Answer 71

qualitative

Question 72

why are interviews useful in exploratory research

Answer 72

- it is in an area that is not well researched - depth and detail is usually needed - there may be an aim but not hypothesis - aim is likely to be broad as it's exploring an area rather than a specific hypothesis

Question 73

what happens during an interview

Answer 73

- notes can be taken - interview may be recorded - once completed, notes must be transcribed - so all data is available for analysis

Question 74

why must participants be involved in each stage of the interview

Answer 74

- they must see schedule before the interview so they know what to expect throughout - they must agree to the chosen format for recording the interview - they must see the full transcript of the interview once complete so they can agree what was said

Question 75

how can researchers remain objective in an interview

Answer 75

- producing a complete transcription of the interview = ensures they can't select what should be included - ensuring interviewee sees results and agrees that they are accurately recorded - having another researcher analyse the results

Question 76

strengths of interviews

Answer 76

- Interviewer can explain questions and explore issues by asking further questions - they are most ideal when a researcher needs to be able to investigate further/explain issues to a participant - obtain in-depth and detailed data which are valid - valid = case studies

Question 77

Interviews - obtaining in depth and detailed data

Answer 77

- valid - interviewees talk in their own words - and aren't restricted

Question 78

Interviews - valid (case studies)

Answer 78

- data is real life and true = valid - an interview is important for a case study

Question 79

interviews - weaknesses

Answer 79

- interviewer influence - status of interviewer - analysing data - difficult to maintain objectivity

Question 80

interviews - interviewer influence

Answer 80

- when asking questions, interviewers may find it difficult not to influence answers - they may find a way to ask a question with a certain emphasis

Question 81

interviews - status of influencer

Answer 81

- how the interviewer looks /acts mat also affects responses - e.g interviewees may give different responses to male and female interviewers

Question 82

interviews - interpreting responses

Answer 82

- the researcher may find it hard not to interpret the responses when analysing the data and forming themes

Question 83

Interviews - maintaining objectivity

Answer 83

- may be difficult - subjectivity may also be an issue - hard to analyse interviews - generating themes involves selection and the appropriate grouping of data - this choice may be subjective

Question 84

reliability - questionnaires

Answer 84

- standardised - same set of question is administered to all participants - reducing variability in how they are asked - responses are easier to compare

Question 85

reliability - interviews

Answer 85

- lower - unstructured/semi structured can vary greatly depending on interviewers approach - can cause inconsistency in results

Question 86

validity - questionnaires

Answer 86

- usually have fixed questions - so respondents cannot expand on their answers - so responses may not be valid - open ended questions are often restricted in length - so qualitative data can be limited = less validity

Question 87

validity - interviews

Answer 87

- offer a greater flexibility and depth - interviewees speak in more detail - interviews obtain more in depth data - interviewees talk in their own words and aren't restricted - data is real life, true and valid

Question 88

subjectivity - questionnaires

Answer 88

- open ended questions allow for subjectivity - close ended questions provide less detail/depth due to standardised procedure - responses could be limited = less subjectivity

Question 89

subjectivity - interviews

Answer 89

- unstructured = allow flexibility in how questions are answered - involve direct interaction between researcher and participant = deeper more detailed responses - more subjective= gives more room for participants to elaborate on thoughts and feelings

Question 90

3 measures of central tendency

Answer 90

- mean - mode - median

Question 91

mean

Answer 91

- average score - found by adding up the scores - and dividing by numbers / scores / participants

Question 92

issues with using a mean

Answer 92

- an outlying score can skew the data so the average isn't useful - not suitable if scores are reasonably spread - sometimes doesn't make sense/unhelpful

Question 93

mode

Answer 93

- the most usual in the set of scores - the score that appears most often

Question 94

how do we calculate the mode

Answer 94

- put scores in order - to see which scores are repeated and how many times

Question 95

issues with the mode

Answer 95

- it may not represent the data very well - as mode could be the lowest score

Question 96

median

Answer 96

- the middle score

Question 97

how do we calculate the median

Answer 97

- if there is an odd number of total scores - identify the middle score - if there is an even number of total scores - we can add up the 2 scores that are around the middle score and divide them by 2

Question 98

issues with the median

Answer 98

- if there is no middle score - it isn't useful in that it does not show and outlying score - it just shows the middle set of scores

Question 99

frequency tables

Answer 99

- displays the number of times in which each piece of data occurs - summarise data by offering groups of scores in order to produce a condensed version of the data set

Question 100

graph

Answer 100

- visually displays data - making it easier to compare data sets - trends and differences can be easily identified and understood

Question 101

rules for bar charts

Answer 101

- 2 axes (vertical - y, horizontal - x) - both axes must be fully labelled - columns showing different variables are not joined

Question 102

measures of dispersion

Answer 102

- range - standard deviation

Question 103

range

Answer 103

- shows the spread of scores in a data set

Question 104

how do we calculate the range

Answer 104

- subtract largest score from the smallest score

Question 105

standard deviation

Answer 105

- shows how far the scores in a set of data vary from the mean

Question 106

high standard deviation

Answer 106

- the spread of scores from the mean is wide

Question 107

low standard deviation

Answer 107

- the spread of scores from the mean is fairly close

Question 108

analysing qualitative data - measure

Answer 108

thematic analysis

Question 109

steps in thematic analysis

Answer 109

- read and re-read data - generate your initial codes - searching for themes - reviewing themes = reviewing at the level of coded data + reviewing at the level of the themes - defining and naming themes

Question 110

generate initial codes

Answer 110

- code for as many potential codes as possible - data that is identified by the same code should then be collated together

Question 111

code

Answer 111

- an idea that captures something important about the data in relation to your research question - represents a pattern in the responses

Question 112

searching for themes

Answer 112

- we should have a long list of different codes - focus on a broader level of themes - sort codes into potential themes - themes are made up of a subset of codes - codes are kept to form main themes or sub - themes - some codes are discarded - we should now have a collection of themes and sub-themes

Question 113

reviewing themes

Answer 113

- refining themes - stage has 2 levels - reviewing at the level of the coded data - reviewing at the level of the themes

Question 114

Reviewing themes: stage 1 - reviewing at the level of coded data

Answer 114

- re-read all data extracts that fit into each theme - ensures all data forms a coherent pattern - if data does not fit into theme check if theme is problematic / whether data needs rearranging - once data fits each theme coherently move onto level 2

Question 115

Reviewing themes: stage 2 - reviewing at the level of the themes

Answer 115

- consider each theme in relation to your data corpus - use a thematic map to help you visualise the relationship between themes - check relationships between themes reflect the meaning of your data as a whole - if not return to step 3 - at the end of this stage you should have a satisfactory thematic map of data

Question 116

defining and naming themes

Answer 116

- researcher conducts and writes a detailed analysis of each theme - now create an overall narrative with all of your data - after revision of themes in relation to data a final thematic map is produced - we should be able to describe a theme in a couple of sentences

Question 117

Strengths - thematic analysis

Answer 117

- reducing data into a manageable summary and conclusion without losing validity of data - valid

Question 118

how is thematic analysis valid

Answer 118

- encourages researcher to derive themes from the data - rather than impose pre selected themes

Question 119

Thematic analysis weaknesses

Answer 119

- researchers often don't fully explain how they arrived at the themes and so a study isn't easily judged for its validity - takes time and skill - not always valid

Question 120

Thematic analysis - takes skill and time

Answer 120

- identifying themes at the start may be easy - but identifying a limited number of themes that represent data fully - is much more difficult and takes time

Question 121

Thematic analysis - not always valid

Answer 121

- researcher may have themes in mind when doing initial coding - less valid as themes may come from researcher rather than data and is the intention - thematic analysis may be driven by theory and intention - = less valid