SPOC week 2 AI generated

Question 1

Describe the different types of diabetes mentioned in the content.

Answer 1

The types of diabetes include Type 1 diabetes, Type 2 diabetes, Gestational diabetes, and various rare types associated with genetic disorders or other diseases.

Question 2

What are the major organs involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels?

Answer 2

The major organs involved are the liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, intestine, and pancreas.

Question 3

Define insulin resistance in the context of diabetes.

Answer 3

Insulin resistance occurs when cells do not respond effectively to insulin, leading to difficulties in glucose uptake.

Question 4

How does insulin help control blood glucose levels after a meal?

Answer 4

Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose in skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue, while suppressing glucose output from the liver.

Question 5

Describe the pathogenesis of diabetes focusing on insulin action and Beta-cell function.

Answer 5

The key features are Insulin resistance, where cells do not respond well to insulin, and Beta-cell failure, where the pancreas is unable to secrete adequate insulin.

Question 6

Explain the development of Type 2 diabetes according to the content.

Answer 6

Type 2 diabetes develops slowly over time, preceded by a period of disturbed blood glucose regulation, eventually leading to insulin resistance and Beta-cell failure.

Question 7

Describe pre-diabetes and its two subtypes.

Answer 7

Pre-diabetes is the phase before diabetes where there are elevated glucose levels. The two subtypes are impaired fasting glucose (elevated fasting glucose levels) and impaired glucose tolerance (elevated glucose levels after meals).

Question 8

Explain the difference between impaired fasting glucose (IFG) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT).

Answer 8

IFG has elevated fasting glucose levels but normal 2-hour glucose levels, while IGT has non-diabetic fasting glucose levels and elevated 2-hour glucose levels.

Question 9

Define adipose tissue and mention its two major locations in the body.

Answer 9

Adipose tissue is body fat. It is found just beneath the skin (subcutaneous) and in the abdominal cavity around organs (visceral).

Question 10

How does the location of adipose tissue affect metabolic risk in individuals?

Answer 10

Adipose tissue above the waistline (apple-like shape) poses higher metabolic risk, while adipose tissue at the gluteal region (pear-like shape) is associated with lower cardiometabolic risk.

Question 11

What is ectopic lipid deposition and what can it lead to?

Answer 11

Ectopic lipid deposition is the storage of fat in non-adipose tissues. When lipid storage exceeds cell capacity, it can lead to ‘lipotoxicity’, interfering with normal cell function.

Question 12

Describe how an unhealthy diet and lack of physical activity contribute to adipose tissue dysfunction.

Answer 12

An unhealthy diet and lack of physical activity lead to a positive energy balance, causing excess energy to be stored in adipose tissue. This can stress fat cells, leading to dysfunction, especially in visceral adipose tissue.

Question 13

Describe the process by which fat cells contribute to a low-grade inflammatory state in the body.

Answer 13

Fat cells release factors like cytokines and adipokines, attracting macrophages and inducing more cytokine release, leading to inflammation. This can result in insulin resistance and increased fatty acid release.

Question 14

Define insulin resistance and its impact on the body.

Answer 14

Insulin resistance is decreased sensitivity to insulin, leading to reduced activity in insulin signalling pathways. It can result in impaired glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, and other metabolic functions.

Question 15

How does insulin function in the body to regulate glucose levels?

Answer 15

Insulin binds to insulin receptors on cell walls, triggering insulin signalling pathways that stimulate glucose uptake into cells, particularly in skeletal muscle and fat cells. It also promotes glycogen synthesis and inhibits processes like gluconeogenesis and lipolysis.

Question 16

Describe the role of skeletal muscles in glucose homeostasis.

Answer 16

Skeletal muscles are important insulin-sensitive organs that receive 80% of ingested glucose during a meal. They play a crucial role in glucose uptake and storage, contributing to overall glucose balance in the body.

Question 17

What are the key features of the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes?

Answer 17

The key features include insulin resistance in skeletal muscle and the liver, as well as impaired Beta-cell function with reduced insulin secretion in the pancreas. These factors contribute to the development of type 2 diabetes.

Question 18

Explain the impact of insulin resistance on insulin signalling pathways.

Answer 18

In individuals with insulin resistance, the activity of insulin signalling pathways is reduced, leading to decreased sensitivity to insulin. This can disrupt glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis, and other metabolic processes in the body.

Question 19

Describe the role of lipid accumulation inside the cell in relation to insulin signaling and glucose metabolism.

Answer 19

Lipid accumulation exceeding utilization can interfere with insulin signaling, impair GLUT 4 translocation, reduce glucose uptake after meals, and lead to postprandial hyperglycemia.

Question 20

Define the function of the pancreas in regulating blood glucose levels.

Answer 20

The pancreas secretes enzymes to break down food and produces hormones like insulin and glucagon to control blood glucose levels.

Question 21

How do Alpha and Beta cells in the pancreas contribute to glucose regulation?

Answer 21

Alpha cells produce glucagon to raise blood glucose levels when they are low, while Beta cells produce insulin to lower blood glucose levels.

Question 22

Describe the process of insulin release from Beta cells in response to increased blood glucose levels.

Answer 22

When glucose levels rise, Beta cells take up glucose, triggering a series of actions leading to calcium influx, insulin release, and increased insulin levels in the blood.

Question 23

Explain the consequences of impaired glucose tolerance due to lipid accumulation and insulin resistance.

Answer 23

Impaired glucose tolerance prolongs the time to return to normal glucose levels, increases fatty acid release from adipose tissue, and leads to ectopic lipid accumulation.

Question 24

Define the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes in terms of Beta-cell function.

Answer 24

In Type 1 diabetes, Beta-cells are completely destroyed, while in Type 2 diabetes, there is impaired insulin secretion and/or insulin resistance.

Question 25

Describe the role of insulin in type 1 diabetes.

Answer 25

In type 1 diabetes, no insulin is produced, leading to the need for insulin injections to regulate glucose metabolism.

Question 26

Explain the cause of beta-cell destruction in type 1 diabetes.

Answer 26

Beta-cell destruction in type 1 diabetes is caused by an autoimmune response where the immune system attacks and kills healthy pancreatic beta cells.

Question 27

Define the term ‘lipotoxicity’ in relation to diabetes development.

Answer 27

Lipotoxicity refers to the interference of glucose-induced insulin secretion by lipid accumulation inside beta cells, contributing to beta-cell failure and insulin resistance.

Question 28

How does the HOMA index measure insulin resistance?

Answer 28

The HOMA index calculates insulin resistance indirectly by multiplying fasting insulin and fasting blood glucose levels, then dividing the result by 22.5.

Question 29

Describe the role of genes in the development of type 1 diabetes.

Answer 29

Genes play a role in type 1 diabetes susceptibility, with certain genes making individuals more prone to developing the condition.

Question 30

Explain the impact of lipid accumulation in the pancreas on beta-cell function in type 2 diabetes.

Answer 30

Increased lipid accumulation in the pancreas, often seen in obese type 2 diabetic patients, can lead to beta-cell failure and exhaustion, affecting insulin secretion.

Question 31

What is the significance of measuring blood glucose levels in assessing insulin resistance?

Answer 31

Measuring blood glucose levels can indicate hyperglycemia or glucose intolerance, which are often associated with insulin resistance in individuals.

Question 32

Define ‘amyloid deposition’ in the context of beta-cell function.

Answer 32

Amyloid deposition refers to the accumulation of a peptide called amyloid in beta cells, which can compromise their function and contribute to diabetes development.

Question 33

How does fasting glucose levels change with the development of insulin resistance?

Answer 33

Fasting glucose levels start to change only when a certain degree of insulin resistance has already developed, as they are well controlled by increased insulin secretion initially.

Question 34

Describe the HOMA-IR index.

Answer 34

A value above 1 indicates some insulin resistance, with higher values indicating more insulin resistance. It is a quick, easy, and relatively cheap estimation of insulin resistance, but not a direct quantification of insulin action.

Question 35

What does OGTT stand for and how is it used?

Answer 35

OGTT stands for oral glucose tolerance test. It measures the glucose response in the blood up to two hours after ingesting 75 grams of sugar to assess the body’s efficiency in disposing of glucose.

Question 36

Define the ‘clamp’ technique.

Answer 36

The ‘clamp’ technique, also known as the hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp, involves infusing insulin at a fixed high rate to create hyperinsulinemic conditions and simultaneously infusing glucose to maintain stable blood glucose levels.

Question 37

How does the ‘clamp’ technique determine insulin sensitivity?

Answer 37

By adjusting the glucose infusion rate to maintain stable blood glucose levels, the ‘clamp’ technique quantifies insulin sensitivity based on the amount of glucose required to achieve euglycemia.

Question 38

Describe the advantages of using the OGTT.

Answer 38

The OGTT is easy to apply, provides more information than fasting glucose levels alone, and helps assess insulin resistance. However, it requires more time and effort compared to simpler measures.

Question 39

How does measuring insulin levels enhance the estimation of insulin resistance during an OGTT?

Answer 39

Measuring insulin levels during an OGTT provides a more precise estimation of insulin resistance by correlating glucose response with insulin levels, offering insights into insulin sensitivity or resistance.