test 2 Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
- A mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerts influence on individuals response to all objects and situations with which it is related
A
Attitude definition
2
Q
attitudes-observable or private? -how are they organized?
-born or acquired?
A
-Attitudes are private, and not directly observable
Organized through experience,
We are not born with our attitudes we acquire them via the socialization process
3
Q
attitude structure
A
Attitudes comprise a
cognitive, affective, and behavioral
component in their structure
4
Q
what component dominates in attitude?
how are attitudes expressed?
A
the affective componet
expressed as emotional responces
5
Q
Value:
A
A concept closely related to an attitude
that is a standard of what is desirable for
one’s actions
◦ A guideline for a person’s actions
◦ A standard for behavior
6
Q
Attitude vs. a value attitudes directed towards? are values broad or specific? more attitudes or values? a value contains?
A
◦ Attitudes are directed toward objects, people, and situations
◦ Values are broad, abstract notions
◦ We have more attitudes than values
◦ A value contains many interrelated attitudes
7
Q
the abc’s of attitudes
A
affect
behavior
cognitions
8
Q
Two categories of values
Do people with different attitudes half to have different values
A
Terminal values
Instrumental values:
◦ People with different attitudes often have many
values in common
9
Q
◦ Terminal values:
◦ Instrumental values:
A
Terminal values: Desired end states (e.g., justice)
Instrumental values: Preferred ways of doing things
(e.g., treating people fairly)
10
Q
Explicit attitude:
Implicit attitude:
A
An attitude that operates on a conscious level via controlled processing
An attitude that affects behavior
automatically, without conscious thought and
below the level of awareness via automatic
processing
11
Q
Types of items on attitude survey
A
Close-ended questions (restricted responses)
Open-ended questions (free response)
◦ Rating scale
12
Q
how do researchers get people for attitude survey
A
Researchers conducting an attitude survey
select a sample of individuals from a larger
population
◦ Sample must be representative for a survey to be valid
13
Q
Biases in Attitude Surveys
A
◦ Question wording can affect results
◦ Respondents may lie or may not remember what they actually did or thought
14
Q
Unobtrusive measure:
A
Measure in which the individuals whose attitudes you are measuring are not aware of your interest in them
For example, measuring voting preferences by tallying the number of bumper stickers for a particular candidate on parked cars
15
Q
Lost-letter technique
A
Drop letters with foreign vs. nonforeign sounding
name and see how many are returned
16
Q
Mere exposure effect:
A
Repeated exposure to a
stimulus increases one’s feelings, usually
positive, toward that object
17
Q
are related to what term?
◦ Most powerful when exposure occurs randomly
over time◦ Too many exposures actually decreases the effect◦ Repeated exposures increase liking when the stimuli are neutral or positive to begin with◦ Repeated exposure to a negative stimulus results in negative attitudes
A
Mere exposure effect:
18
Q
mere exposure effect, know about the photos study
A
the photos seem the most are voted the highest, repeated exposure increase liking
19
Q
Attitudes developed based on actual exposure to attitude object ◦ Strongly held and affect behavior ◦ Resistant to change ◦ Shapes attitudes throughout life ◦ Limited number of attitudes formed this way
A
direct personal experience
20
Q
Operant conditioning
A
◦ Rewarded attitudes are maintained or strengthened
21
Q
Evaluative conditioning
A
you pair the object with the situation ex- if you meet someone at a party you are more likly to like them then at a boring meeting, do to the association
22
Q
- Similar to classical conditioning, but there are
differences-Associations formed via evaluative conditioning are more persistent than classically conditioned responses - Evaluatively conditioned associations are more resistant to extinction than classically conditioned responses
A
evaluative conditioning
23
Q
Observational learning:
A
Attitudes formed by
watching others and what happens to them
24
Q
- Does not depend on direct reinforcement of behavior-Learn by watching consequences to a model’s behavior- Rewarded behavior likely to be imitated- Punished behavior not likely to be imitated
A
Observational learning:
25
observational learning leads to
effect on mass media
26
Fictional framing
is the process whereby the fictional media shapes attitudes
27
effect on mass media
Attitudes can be formed from exposure to media
| sources (e.g., television, books, textbooks)
28
Agenda setting:
Topics most salient in the
| mass media tend to set the public agenda
29
First level agenda setting:
| Second level agenda setting:
- Media defining what stories are important
| - Media telling us how to think on an issue
30
Heritability:
The extent to which genetics
accounts for differences among people in a
given characteristic or behavior
31
There is an indirect relationship between
heredity and attitudes
32
Compared to learned attitudes, genetically
| based attitudes are
◦ Stronger
◦ More complex
◦ Less likely to change
33
The longer you are in a group...
the more your
| behavior will conform to the group’s
34
Affiliative social tuning hypothesis:
Individuals adjust beliefs to those of others
| when they want to get along those others
35
are attitudes strong
| predictors of behavior?
The relationship is not as strong as once
| believed
36
the importance of conviction
some attitudes are more important than others, such as religious attitudes are more important than attitudes toward brown trout
37
these are attributes of?
◦ Central to the person holding them (e.g., Liberalism or Conservatism)
◦ Difficult to manipulate in the laboratory so they were not studied
◦ Easily accessible (i.e., one can respond quickly and have a large number of ideas)
◦ More likely to correspond to behavior
attitudes that are held with conviction
38
are attitudes easily accessible
yes
39
Most attitude theories suggest a
rational basis for attitudes and behavior
40
Humans are not always rational in their behavior and their behavior can be inconsistent with their attitudes
Nonrational actor
41
Behavior involving reduced attention
| and loss of active control in everyday activities
mindlessness
42
```
As a nonrational actor, attitudes and behavior
become uncoupled when:
is the attitude important to us?
is their a clear sense of goals?
behavior becomes?
```
◦ An attitude is not important to us
◦ One does not have a clear sense of one’s goals and needs
◦ Under conditions of uncertainty behavior becomes less predictable
43
```
Attitude-behavior consistency is most likely
when the attitude is
-important or not?
deeply held or not?
related to goals?
```
important
deeply held
related to goals
44
The belief that we see the world objectively, while others are biased, and that if others do not see the world as we do, they are not rational
Naïve realism:
45
We are motivated to see
| ourselves as free of bias and objective
Bias blind spot:
46
A form of social influence that involves changing others’ thoughts, attitudes, or behaviors by applying rational and/or emotional arguments to convince them to adopt your position
Persuasion:
47
-The believability of the
communicator of a persuasive message
-more what=s more persusasion
Credibility:
48
-A communicator’s credentials stemming from the person’s training and knowledge
- Assessment of the communicator’s character as well as his or her motives for delivering the
message
Expertise and Trustworthiness
49
when is trustworthiness diminished?
we perceive that the communicator has something to gain from persuading us
50
When a communication has more impact on attitude change after a long delay than
when it is first heard
Sleeper effect
51
who is most creditable communicator?
the opposite sex
52
A male communicator is more persuasive for male-oriented issues, and a female communicator for female-oriented issues
Gender-domain effect:
53
-Using facts and figures are most effective when the audience: is well educated
- is highly involved with the issue
- will carefully process the contents of the message
Rational appeal:
54
Using emotion to persuade The most commonly used emotion to persuade is fear
Known as a fear appeal
Emotional appeal:
55
are fear appeals persusasive? fear also motivates us to what?
yes/ think of ways to protect ourselfs
56
Two components to fear appeal
| what mood produces most persuasion?
Fear (emotion)
Perceived threat (cognitive)
a good mood produces most persusasion
57
The first persuasive argument received is more persuasive than later persuasive arguments
Law of primacy
58
this audience wants what type of message?
An audience that already agrees with you
◦ A less educated, uninformed audience
one sided message
59
An audience that initially disagrees with you
| ◦ A more educated, informed audience
two sided message
60
Exposing an audience to a weakened version of an opposing argument leads an audience to devise counterarguments to the weakened version and will not be as persuaded by later stronger arguments
Inoculation theory
61
Difference between audience
| attitude and message content
Message Discrepancy:
62
1 message is very different from
audience attitude
2 Little difference between message and audience attitude
3 Message and audience attitude are somewhat different
is a high credibility communicator persuasive always?
1 High discrepancy:
2 Low discrepancy:
3 Moderate discrepancy:
A high credibility communicator is persuasive even with high discrepancy
63
The degree of personal involvement in an issue determines how the target will evaluate an attempt at persuasion
Social judgment theory:
64
Perception of a message falls into one of three
judgment categories (latitudes)
1 Messages we are willing to accept
2 Messages we are unwilling to accept (reject)
3 Messages that wewill neither accept nor reject
4 more involvement =?
1 Latitude of acceptance:
2 Latitude or rejection:
3 Latitude of non-commitment:
4more narrow lattitude
65
When a communicator directs the same message at two different audiences communicating different meanings to each,
-such as soldier sending messages to friends vrs eneimies
Multiple audience problem:
66
Private key:
Message content only one audience will understand
67
A number of factors determine whether a message is processed centrally and/or peripherally
-(same) Emphasis on the role of the emotions and motivations of the audience in persuasion
Elaboration likelihood model:
68
route to persuasion consists of thoughtful consideration of the arguments (ideas, content) of the message
Central route processing:
69
route to persuasion where information is processed using cues that are peripheral or marginal to the content message
◦ Peripheral route processing:
70
what are the 2 routes of persuasion?
| are they mutually exclusive?
- central route processing:
- Peripheral route processing:
not mutually exclusive -Some parts of a message may be processed centrally and others peripherally
71
1 Motivation to search the for information about an issue
| 2 Motivation to process emotional content
Cognitive motivation:
| Affective motivation:
72
Effect of mood on message processing
| a good mood/bad mood does what?
a good mood interferes with central processing
| negative mood may enhance central processing
73
Individuals using central route processing are influenced by biasing variables, because they are not aware of the potential biasing conditions
Flexible correction model (FCM)
74
◦ If an issue is important and affects well-being, we are more likely to use?
central processing
75
- The ease with which an
| attitude can be automatically activated
-Attitude accessibility:
76
The effect of vivid message content on persuasion?
| -is there evidence of this in persuasion?
◦ Vividness effect:
| -generally no evidence to support making it more vivid makes it more persuasive
77
when people prefer central route processing they have a high what? these people are always concerned about the message, and like to come up with new solutions
Need for cognition (NC)
78
A person’s tendency to
| approach or avoid emotional situations
Need for affect (NA):
79
A cognitive model of processing model
persuasion suggesting that people choose to
use heuristics or peripheral cues more often
than systematic cues
Heuristic and systematic information---
80
◦ Systematic processing in the HSM is the same as
| ◦ Heuristic processing is the same as
1 central route processing
| 2 peripheral route processing
81
If an individual is unmotivated or cannot
| understand a message he or she will use
heuristics
| like scanning newspaper headlines
82
- When inconsistency exists among our attitudes, or between our attitudes and our behavior, we
experience an unpleasant state of arousal
- this Arousal motivates us to change
attitudes or behavior to reduce or eliminate the
unpleasant arousal (same item)
Cognitive dissonance theory
83
◦ Attitudes and behavior can stand in a consonant
(consistent) or a dissonant (inconsistent)
relationship with one another
◦ Inconsistency between attitudes and behavior gives rise to a negative motivational state known as cognitive dissonance.
◦ Because cognitive dissonance is an uncomfortable state, people are motivated to reduce the dissonance
◦ The greater the amount of dissonance, the stronger the motivation to reduce it
◦ Dissonance may be reduced by rationalizing away the inconsistency or by changing an attitude or a behavior.
Five key assumptions of dissonance theory
84
People given a large payment for doing something infer that the activity must be difficult, tedious, or risky ◦ Lower payment for the same task causes people to justify the activity
Lower payment creates cognitive dissonance and attitude change toward the task
Reverse-incentive effect:
85
Dissonance created after a decision between two mutually- exclusive, different, equally attractive alternatives
Postdecision Dissonance:
86
◦ Cognitive dissonance occurs
only when our actions produce negative consequences
87
refers to how complex a persons attributions are for explaining events
-high ac's show?
◦ Attributional complexity (AC):
| -little dissonance
88
2 characteristics of joining cult
| do cult members lose faith when situation becomes dificult?
A charismatic leader
Demanding process for joining cult
no do not lose faith
89
1. The belief is held with conviction and is relevant to the believer’s behavior
2. An important action is taken that is difficult to undo
3. The belief is sufficiently specific and deals with the real world so it can be refuted
4. Undeniable evidence, recognized by the believer, that the belief is false
5. Social support exists before and after disconfirmation
5 conditions to increase commitment in cult
90
We learn about our motivations by evaluating our own behavior ◦ Can explain attitude change without referring to inner motivations such as dissonance ◦ the action is followed by the attitude, I ate a big dinner, so i must have been hungry, not the other way around
Self perception theory
91
People may not try to reduce dissonance if they can maintain (affirm) their self-concept by proving that they are adequate in other ways, ex.
yes I may be a smoker but I am also a good mom
Self affirmation theory:
92
cognitive discrepancy generates dissonance motivation because the cognitive discrepancy interferes with effective unconflicted action
Action---based model:
93
A psychological state resulting when individuals feel that their freedom of action is threatened, I showed up just a little bit late, that will show them!
Psychological reactance
94
A deliberate attempt to persuade
people, by any available media, to think in a
manner desired by the source
Propaganda
95
5 rules of?
◦ The aims of a cause must be justified
◦ The advantages of victory must be made clear and known
◦ The people need to be aroused to action by instilling hatred of the enemy
◦ Logical arguments of the enemy must be negated
◦ All issues must be stated in clear-cut, black-and white terms
Samuel Adams’ Five Rules of Propaganda
96
propaganda uses stereo types
do they use derogatory names?
they also use lying and repeating
-are they interested in debates?
-do they go after everyone, or pinpoint the enemy?
do they have a leader, what would this be called?
true/ yes
not interested in debates
they pinpoint an enemy
appeal to athority
97
two secrets of propeganda
repeat message
| simplify message for everyone to understand
98
Modifying behavior in response
| to real or imagined pressure from others
Conformity:
99
Social influence resulting from a person responding to information provided by others
(its cold outside,wear a coat)
Informational social influence:
100
Social influence in which a person changes behavior in response to pressure to conform to a norm (everyone has a black coat...)
Normative social influence:
101
An unwritten social rule existing either
on a cultural or a situation-specific level
suggesting what is appropriate behavior in a
situation
Norm:
102
Sherif -autokinetic effect
◦ Stationary pinpoint of light shined on a screen in
front of the room
◦ Participants estimate how much the stationary light moves - When participants were alone estimates ranged from
1.75” to 7”
103
Seven people in the room, only one real participant - The rest were “confederates”
◦ Used a simple line judgment task
Match one of three lines to a standard line
Majority” makes correct choices on first few
trials - On “critical trials” majority makes a wrong
choice - The subject’s dilemma: Trust senses or
conform to the majority
How many conformed at least once?
solomon Asch research
| 70% conformed at least once
104
Three categories of Independent subjects asch Independent subjects (pathways to conformity)
1 Trusted senses = Coped best with majority pressure - Confident in judgments and coped with conflict 2 Independent and withdrawn
Strong need to remain independent
3 Motivated to do well on the task
Felt tension and doubt about own judgments
105
Conformity reduced if there is another person who supports the nonconforming individual’s position
True partner effect
106
when do women conform more?
when a male experimenter runs the experiment
107
Sociopolitical climate affects conformity rates
| ◦ More conformity when times favor conformity
just know this, free card
108
characteristics of who doing what?
Is strong and self-confident
◦ Is consistent (but not rigid)
◦ Adopts a negotiating style (willing to compromise)
◦ Is flexible (willing to consider opposing arguments)
minority influencing majority
109
what model of influence?
◦ Separate processes for majority and minority
influence / Majority influence = Normative social influence and Public compliance, no private acceptance / Minority influence= - Informational social influence - Public compliance and private acceptance
two process model
110
what model of influence?◦ Social impact theory: Social influence is a function of the combination of the strength (S), immediacy, (I) and number of influence sources (N) Influence is a function of the interaction between S, I and N: I = function (S x I x N)◦ Majority influence: Number of sources
◦ Minority influence: Strength and number of
influence sources
Single-process model
111
Social influence process that involves modifying behavior in response to a direct request
Compliance:
112
A small request is made before a larger request,
resulting in more compliance to the larger
request than if the larger request were made
alone
Foot in the door technique(FITD)
113
these are reasons for what?
◦ Self-perception hypothesis
Agreeing small request leads to changes in self
perception: see yourself as a person who helps
◦ Perceptual contrast hypothesis
Second request is judged against the first
why the FIDT technique works:
114
A large request is made before a smaller request, resulting in more compliance to the smaller request than if the smaller request were made alone
door in the face technique (DITF):
115
A social norm stating that you should help those who help you
Norm of reciprocity
116
may even be more powerful than either
| the FITD or DITF techniques
low balling
117
A social influence process involving modification of behavior in response to a command from an authority figure
◦ Obedience that harms individuals and society
Obedience:
Destructive obedience
118
what study focused on destructive obedience?
millgram shocking study
119
individual becomes focused on the source of
| authority, tuning in to the instructions issued
Agentic state
120
The discomfort one feels in an obedience situation that causes a person to question the legitimacy of the authority figure and weakens the agentic state
Role strain:
121
Guides persuasion tactics, persuasion will occur if logical argument presented
Yale communication model
