Week 10 Readings Flashcards
1
Q
What aspect of attention refers to the conscious and often voluntary control over what we focus on?
A
The conscious nature of attention.
2
Q
What historical event spurred psychologists to study sustained attention?
A
World War II, when it was crucial to remain highly alert and accurate while watching radar screens for enemy planes.
3
Q
What modern task requires a high level of sustained attention similar to that needed for watching radar screens in WWII?
A
TSA agents searching for prohibited items in carry-on luggage.
4
Q
What does the term “sustained attention” or “vigilance” refer to?
A
The ability to maintain focus and alertness over a prolonged period, especially while searching for rare events.
5
Q
What does “divided attention” refer to in psychological studies of attention?
A
The ability to attend to multiple sources of information simultaneously.
6
Q
What is “spatial attention” in the context of psychological studies?
A
How we focus on a specific part of our environment and shift our attention to other locations.
7
Q
What does “selective attention” involve?
A
Focusing on certain information while intentionally blocking out other distractions.
8
Q
Why is selective attention important in understanding how we process information?
A
It helps us manage limited cognitive resources by prioritizing important stimuli.
9
Q
What classic scenario is used to illustrate the concept of selective attention?
A
The cocktail party scenario
10
Q
How did early researchers study selective attention in the laboratory?
A
By using dichotic listening and shadowing tasks.
11
Q
What is dichotic listening?
A
A situation where two different messages are presented simultaneously, one to each ear.
12
Q
What is the purpose of shadowing in a dichotic listening task?
A
To control which message the individual focuses on by having them repeat back one of the messages as they hear it.
13
Q
In a dichotic listening task, what might happen if a story about a camping trip is presented to one ear and a story about Abe Lincoln to the other ear?
A
The person must try to shadow one story (e.g., repeat the camping story) without being distracted by the story about Abe Lincoln.
14
Q
What do dichotic listening tasks help researchers understand about attention?
A
How well a person can focus on one stream of information while ignoring a competing message.
15
Q
How well can people perform the shadowing task in selective attention experiments?
A
They can usually report the content of the attended message but not the content of the ignored one.
16
Q
What aspects of the ignored message can people typically recall?
A
Basic physical characteristics, like whether the voice was male or female or the pitch of the speech.
17
Q
What are some surprising findings about the ignored message in dichotic listening tasks? What do these findings suggest about our capacity to process information for meaning?
A
People often do not notice changes in the language of the ignored message or when a word is repeated over 35 times.
We have a limited capacity for processing information, which emphasizes the importance of the selection process.
18
Q
What is Broadbent’s Filter Model, and what experiments was it based on?
A
It was developed by Donald Broadbent in 1958, based on dichotic listening tasks and other experiments. It explains how selection in attention occurs.
19
Q
How does Broadbent’s Filter Model describe the selection process?
A
Information is selected based on physical features, such as the sensory channel, voice pitch, or visual characteristics like color and font.
20
Q
What does Broadbent’s Filter Model say about the processing of unattended information?
A
People are vaguely aware of the physical features of ignored information but have no knowledge of its meaning. The unattended information is not processed beyond basic sensory analysis.
21
Q
How is selected information processed according to Broadbent’s model?
A
The filter only allows information from one channel (e.g., one ear) to be processed further, transferring it to short-term memory and conscious awareness for meaning.
22
Q
What experiment did Anne Treisman conduct involving dichotic listening?
A
She presented two different stories to each ear and had participants shadow one story. As the stories switched ears, participants often followed the content before realizing and correcting their focus.
23
Q
What did Treisman’s results suggest about unattended information?
A
They suggest that we monitor unattended information to some degree based on its meaning, contradicting the idea that it is completely blocked.
24
Q
How does Treisman’s Attenuation Theory differ from Broadbent’s Filter Model?
A
Treisman proposed that unattended information is not completely blocked but weakened or attenuated. Meaningful information in the unattended ear can still be processed if it is particularly relevant.
25
How does the Attenuation Theory explain the processing of meaningful information in the unattended ear?
If the unattended information is highly meaningful (like hearing your name), it can pass through the attenuated filter and be processed for meaning.
26
What does the late selection model by Deutsch and Deutsch (1963) propose about attention?
It suggests that all information, even from the unattended ear, is processed for meaning, but only task-relevant information reaches conscious awareness.
27
How does the late selection model differ from earlier selective attention models?
Unlike models suggesting that only selected information is processed for meaning, the late selection model proposes full processing of all information before conscious awareness.
28
How is the late selection model related to subliminal perception?
It supports the idea that messages can be processed for meaning without conscious awareness.
29
What is a key difference in the placement of the selective filter between early and late selection models?
In the late selection model, the filter occurs after the analysis of meaning, while in early selection models, it occurs before meaning is analyzed.
30
Why did researchers develop multiple models of selective attention?
Because no single model explained all the data, as some evidence showed complete blocking of nonselected information, while other studies showed that it could be processed for meaning.
31
What does the multimode model of attention propose?
It suggests that the stage of selection can change depending on the task, allowing flexibility in how we process information.
32
How did Johnston and Heinz (1978) contribute to the multimode model?
They demonstrated that selection can occur early, with minimal processing of unattended content, or later, with full processing of content, depending on task demands.
33
What is an advantage of early selection in attention?
It is easy, automatic, rapid, and requires little effort, such as attending to physical characteristics like voice pitch.
34
Why might late selection be used despite being more effortful?
It allows us to process the meaning of all messages, offering flexibility in attention based on our goals and the complexity of the task.
35
How have the principles of selective attention been tested in the visual domain?
Neisser (1979) superimposed two semi-transparent video clips and asked viewers to focus on one, finding that viewers often missed events in the other video. This phenomenon relates to inattentional blindness.
36
What did Simons and Chabris (1999) contribute to research on visual selective attention?
They expanded on Neisser's work using similar techniques and highlighted the concept of inattentional blindness, sparking significant new research in the field.
37
What is inattentional blindness?
It is a phenomenon where individuals fail to notice visible but unexpected events when their attention is focused elsewhere.
38
What is subliminal perception, and why is it intriguing?
Subliminal perception is the idea that stimuli presented below the threshold for awareness can influence thoughts or behavior, like hidden messages in ads or music.
39
What controversy surrounds claims of subliminal perception, such as the "Eat Popcorn" study?
The study was famously fabricated, leading to skepticism about such claims. Psychologists have since worked to verify if subliminal perception can truly influence behavior.
40
What challenges exist in studying subliminal perception?
Establishing a clear threshold for consciousness and understanding the complexity of stimuli that can affect behavior remain difficult. Distinctions between objective and subjective thresholds are particularly important.
41
Is there evidence supporting the impact of subliminal perception on behavior?
Yes, there is some evidence that people can be influenced by stimuli they aren't aware of, but the extent and complexity of this influence are still debated.
42
What was the aim of Spelke, Hirst, and Neisser’s (1976) classic study on divided attention?
To examine whether people can perform two tasks simultaneously, such as dictation and reading for comprehension, and how dividing attention affects performance.
43
How are divided attention tasks typically designed and evaluated?
Each task is first evaluated separately to establish baseline performance, then performance is measured when both tasks are performed simultaneously to see if attention can be divided without disrupting performance.
44
What does a decrease in performance during a divided attention task suggest?
It suggests that cognitive demands are too high to perform both tasks simultaneously without disruption, even if attention can be divided or switched.
45
What is the difference between divided attention and task switching?
Divided attention involves performing two tasks at once, while task switching involves shifting between tasks. Task switching is cognitively demanding and can impair performance.
46
Why is texting while driving dangerous, and how does it affect driving performance?
Texting distracts not only because of occupied hands or eyes but also because it significantly increases cognitive demands, impairing driving performance. This leads to slower responses and decreased awareness of surroundings (Strayer, Watson, & Drews, 2011).
47
Do cell phone conversations, even with a hands-free device, impair driving?
Yes, whether using a handheld or hands-free device, cell phone conversations impair driving by reducing awareness, such as slower reaction times and difficulty noticing key visual cues like brake lights (Strayer & Johnston, 2001).
48
How does cognitive distraction like cell phone use cause inattentional blindness in drivers?
Cognitive distractions, such as talking on a cell phone, cause inattentional blindness, meaning drivers fail to notice objects they look at, as their cognitive resources are diverted (Strayer & Drews, 2007; Simons & Chabris, 1999).
Only about 2% of people can truly multitask without impairing their driving performance, even though many believe they can safely do so (Watson & Strayer, 2010).
49
How do psychologists conceptualize memory?
sychologists conceptualize memory in terms of types (explicit vs. implicit), stages (sensory, short-term, long-term), and processes (encoding, storage, retrieval).
50
What are the two types of memory?
The two types of memory are explicit memory (conscious recall) and implicit memory (unconscious memory, such as skills or habits).
51
What are the three major stages of memory?
The three major stages of memory are sensory memory (brief initial storage), short-term memory (temporary storage for immediate use), and long-term memory (permanent storage).
52
What are the three main processes involved in long-term memory?
The three main processes are encoding (transforming information for storage), storage (maintaining information over time), and retrieval (accessing stored information).
53
What is explicit memory?
Explicit memory refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered.
54
What are the two types of explicit memory?
The two types of explicit memory are episodic memory and semantic memory.
Episodic memory refers to firsthand experiences or events we have had, such as personal recollections of significant moments (e.g., high school graduation or a memorable dinner).
Semantic memory refers to our knowledge of facts, concepts, and general information about the world (e.g., definitions of words, mathematical facts).
55
How is explicit memory assessed?
Explicit memory is assessed using measures where the individual consciously attempts to remember the information, such as recall and recognition tests.
A recall memory test is a measure of explicit memory where the individual must bring up information previously remembered, such as when taking an essay test.
A recognition memory test is a measure of explicit memory where the individual determines whether they have seen or learned information before, such as in a multiple-choice test.
56
What is relearning as a measure of memory?
Relearning (or savings) measures how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is studied again after being previously learned and forgotten.
57
How is relearning different from recall or recognition?
Relearning is more sensitive because it assesses how much or how fast information is learned, rather than just determining whether the response is correct or incorrect.
58
Can relearning be used to measure memory for procedural skills?
Yes, relearning can measure memory for both facts (e.g., vocabulary) and procedural skills (e.g., driving a car or playing a piano piece).
59
What is implicit memory?
Implicit memory refers to knowledge that we cannot consciously access, but that influences our behavior without our awareness.
60
How does implicit memory affect behavior?
Implicit memory influences behavior by affecting how we act or respond, even if we are not consciously aware of these influences.
61
What are the three general types of implicit memory?
The three types of implicit memory are procedural memory, classical conditioning effects, and priming.
62
What is procedural memory?
Procedural memory refers to our knowledge of how to perform tasks or actions, which we often can't explain consciously.
63
Can you explain how procedural memory works in daily life?
Procedural memory allows us to perform tasks like walking, speaking in English, dialing a phone, or playing a video game without consciously thinking about how we do them.
64
Why is procedural memory important for learning new skills?
Procedural memory helps us learn complex skills, such as riding a bicycle or walking, through practice and repetition, often without conscious awareness.
65
How does procedural memory explain infant development?
Procedural memory helps infants learn skills like crawling, walking, and talking by practicing, even though they don't consciously remember learning these actions as adults.
66
What is classical conditioning in the context of implicit memory?
Classical conditioning is a type of implicit memory where we learn to associate neutral stimuli (like a sound or light) with another stimulus (like food) that triggers a natural response, such as salivation.
67
How does classical conditioning affect behavior?
Classical conditioning leads to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., a sound) evoking the same response (e.g., salivation) as the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., food) did before the learning occurred.
68
Can classical conditioning happen without conscious awareness?
Yes, classical conditioning occurs often without effort or awareness, as we automatically associate stimuli with responses over time.
69
What is priming in the context of implicit memory?
Priming refers to changes in behavior resulting from experiences that have occurred frequently or recently, where activation of knowledge influences behavior.
70
How does priming work in influencing behavior?
Priming activates a concept (e.g., kindness), and this activation can influence behavior, such as people acting more kindly after being exposed to related words.
71
Can priming occur without conscious awareness?
Yes, priming influences behavior without the individual being consciously aware of the activation of certain concepts or ideas.
72
What happens to most information in the stages of memory?
Most information is forgotten before it can move from sensory memory to short-term memory and then to long-term memory.
73
What is sensory memory?
Sensory memory is the brief storage of sensory information, lasting only for a very short time. If information in sensory memory is not attended to, it is forgotten.
The purpose of sensory memory is to give the brain time to process incoming sensations and to create a continuous experience of events, rather than perceiving them as isolated moments.
74
What is iconic memory?
Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory that briefly stores visual information.
75
Who first studied iconic memory, and what was the method used?
George Sperling (1960) studied iconic memory by showing participants a display of letters for 50 milliseconds and then asking them to recall the letters.
Participants were able to recall only about one-quarter of the letters they had seen, even though they had been exposed to them for a brief period.
76
What was the procedure and result of Sperling's follow-up experiment on iconic memory?
Sperling showed participants a display of letters for 50 milliseconds, then asked them to recall all the letters. Participants could remember only about a quarter of the letters. In a follow-up experiment, after the display disappeared, Sperling signaled participants to report letters from one specific row. Participants were able to report almost all the letters from that row, suggesting that they had access to all the letters in their iconic memory.
This confirmed that iconic memory lasts about 250 milliseconds, and with a brief enough task, all the information can be recalled.
77
What is echoic memory, and how does it differ from iconic memory?
Echoic memory is auditory sensory memory, which can last up to four seconds, unlike iconic memory, which decays very rapidly (within about 250 milliseconds).
This longer duration allows us to remember the beginning of a sentence while processing its end, or take notes on a lecture after the speaker has finished a statement.
78
What is eidetic imagery, and how does it relate to memory?
Eidetic imagery, also known as photographic memory, refers to the ability to vividly recall details of an image or sound long after it has been presented. This phenomenon is rare, and some individuals, such as those with autism, may experience it.
It can also extend to auditory memory, with some people reporting unusually long-lasting echoic memories. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is believed to have had an eidetic memory for music, as he could perfectly recall and play long compositions at a young age.
79
What is short-term memory (STM), and how is it different from working memory?
Short-term memory (STM) is the temporary storage of information that lasts for a few seconds to one minute. It holds small amounts of information for brief periods, but it is not permanent.
Working memory, on the other hand, refers to the processes used to manipulate, interpret, and store information in STM. While STM is the storage space, working memory involves the cognitive functions used to process and work with that information.
80
What is the role of working memory’s central executive?
The central executive in working memory directs attention and processing. It manages cognitive resources and strategies, such as rehearsal or visual imagery, to help effectively process and store information.
For example, it may direct the rehearsal of a list of letters while also activating the visual cortex to form an image of the list, helping to organize and maintain information in short-term memory.
81
What is maintenance rehearsal in working memory?
Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information mentally or out loud to keep it in short-term memory.
It helps prevent the decay of information and allows us to retain it long enough to use, write it down, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory.
82
What is explicit memory and how is it measured?
Explicit memory refers to experiences that can be intentionally and consciously remembered. It is measured using recall, recognition, and relearning. Explicit memory includes both episodic memory (personal experiences) and semantic memory (facts and knowledge).
83
What is implicit memory and what are its types?
Implicit memory refers to the influence of past experiences on behavior, even if the individual is unaware of those influences. The three types of implicit memory are procedural memory (how to do things), classical conditioning (associations), and priming (activation of knowledge influencing behavior).
84
What processes are involved in moving information through memory stages?
Information processing begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term memory, and eventually to long-term memory. Maintenance rehearsal and chunking are techniques used to keep information in short-term memory.
85
What is the capacity of long-term memory?
The capacity of long-term memory is vast, and there is no known limit to what we can remember.
86
_______________ refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered.
________________ refers to the firsthand experiences that we have had.
________________refers to our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world.
Explicit memory
refers to knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered.
Episodic memory
refers to the firsthand experiences that we have had.
Semantic memory
refers to our knowledge of facts and concepts about the world.
87
The three types of implicit memory are:
sensory
classical conditioning
priming
88
__________ is the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory
maintenance rehearsal
89
Herbert Simon and William Chase (1973) showed chess masters and chess novices various positions of pieces on a chessboard for a few seconds each. The experts did a lot better than the novices in remembering the positions because they were able to see the “big picture.” The strategies these experts used is known as:
chunking
90
What is dichotic listening?
An experimental task in which two messages are presented to different ears.
91
What is selective listening?
A method for studying selective attention in which people focus attention on one auditory stream of information while deliberately ignoring other auditory information.
92
What did Neisser and his colleagues find in their studies using a visual analogue of the dichotic listening task?
Neisser and his colleagues found that participants, when focused on one of two overlapping and partially transparent events, often failed to notice unexpected events occurring in the unattended video stream, even though these events were visible. This demonstrated inattentional blindness, where individuals were unaware of the meaning or substance of events outside their focus of attention, despite being able to see them.
93
What is inattentional blindness, and how did Simons and Chabris demonstrate it in their experiment?
Inattentional blindness refers to the surprising failure to notice an unexpected object or event when attention is focused on something else. Simons and Chabris (1999) demonstrated this phenomenon by replicating Neisser's experiment with a video of two teams passing a ball. In their version, a woman in a gorilla suit walked through the scene, and half of the observers failed to notice her while counting passes by one of the teams.
This demonstrated that even unexpected, obvious objects can go unnoticed when attention is directed elsewhere.
94
What factors influence the likelihood of noticing unexpected events during inattentional blindness tasks?
People are more likely to notice unexpected events that share features with the attended objects in the display. For example, if a person is counting passes by players in black shirts, they are more likely to notice a gorilla dressed in black than one dressed in white. However, even unique or distinctive items can go unnoticed if attention is focused elsewhere.
95
How does the effort required by an attention-demanding task affect the likelihood of noticing unexpected events?
The more effort you put into an attention-demanding task, the less likely you are to notice unexpected events. For example, when participants were asked to keep separate counts of bounce passes and aerial passes, they were less likely to notice a gorilla in the video (Simons & Chabris, 1999). Similarly, tracking faster moving objects reduces the likelihood of noticing slower ones (Simons & Jensen, 2009). This suggests that attention is limited, and when it is heavily focused on one task, it leaves less capacity for noticing other events.
96
What do studies on inattentional blindness suggest about the limits of attention?
Studies on inattentional blindness suggest that the limits are not purely visual but are related to the overall capacity of attention. If attention is focused on a memory task, for example, people are less likely to notice unexpected visual objects, indicating that attentional resources are finite and must be distributed across tasks. Without sufficient attention directed at an event, it is unlikely to be noticed, even if it is within the visual field (Mack & Rock, 1998; Most et al., 2005).
97
What is inattentional deafness, and how does it relate to inattentional blindness?
Inattentional deafness is the failure to notice auditory information, similar to how inattentional blindness refers to the failure to notice visual information.
For example, when people listen to multiple spatially localized conversations through headphones, they may fail to notice a voice repeatedly saying "I am a gorilla" as they focus on other sounds (Dalton & Fraenkel, 2012).
This phenomenon shows that, under conditions of focused attention, we may miss both visual and auditory stimuli, demonstrating the limits of our attention across sensory modalities (Macdonald & Lavie, 2011; Wayand, Levin, & Varakin, 2005).
98
Why do we often fail to notice unexpected events, and how has this affected our survival?
Our failure to notice unexpected events, like the gorilla in the experiment, stems from the limits of attention and our mistaken belief that we notice everything important. Most of the time, we are unaware of what we miss, which leads us to assume we notice everything.
Evolutionarily, our ability to focus attention might have been more useful than the ability to notice unexpected events, as unexpected events are infrequent and often non-threatening. In social contexts, others may notice what we miss and alert us. Although inattentional blindness had minimal consequences historically, it can have greater consequences today
99
You put on a set of headphones that play two completely different speech streams, one to your left ear and one to your right ear. Your task is to repeat each syllable spoken into your left ear as quickly and accurately as possible, mimicking each sound as you hear it. When performing this attention-demanding task, you won’t notice if the speaker in your right ear switches to a different language or is replaced by a different speaker with a similar voice. You won’t notice if the content of their speech becomes nonsensical. This demonstrates:
- a dichotic inattention task.
- peripheral attention.
- damage to the Corpus Collosum.
- a dichotic listening task
a dichotic listening task
100
Which of the following is not a demonstration of inattentional blindness?
a) When counting ball passes in a video, 50% of people did not report seeing a gorilla thump it’s chest in clear view of the camera.
b) When jogging behind an experimenter, 65% of participants failed to notice a staged fight scene..
c) When reading a textbook, most people skip unnecessary words to increase reading speed..
d) When monitoring black shapes (ignoring the white) moving on a computer monitor, 30% failed to detect a bright red cross going across the screen for 5 seconds.
c)
101
What is the McGurk effect?
The McGurk effect is a perceptual phenomenon where mismatched audio and visual components of speech lead to a misperception of the sounds.
For example, if you see a video of someone saying one word but hear a different sound, your brain may combine the visual and auditory inputs, resulting in a distorted or new perception of the spoken word. This demonstrates the importance of both visual and auditory cues in understanding speech.
102
What is synesthesia?
Synesthesia is a condition in which stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to an automatic, involuntary experience in another.
For example, a person with synesthesia might see colors when they hear sounds or associate certain tastes with specific shapes. This blending of senses is unique to each individual with synesthesia
103
What is selective attention?
Selective attention is the process by which we focus on certain sensory inputs or aspects of our environment while ignoring others. This allows us to concentrate on the most relevant information and avoid being overwhelmed by distractions. However, this can also lead to missing important details if our attention is too narrowly focused.
104
What is the "cocktail party phenomenon"?
The cocktail party phenomenon refers to the ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment while unconsciously monitoring other conversations around you. An example is hearing your name mentioned from across the room at a party, even though you're not actively listening to that conversation. This shows that selective attention allows us to focus on one source of information while still processing background stimuli unconsciously.
105
What is sensory adaptation?
Sensory adaptation is the decreased sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged and constant exposure. For example, when you first step into cold water, it feels chilly, but after a while, you stop noticing the cold. This process helps us focus on new or changing stimuli, which are often more important for survival, by reducing attention to unchanging, constant stimuli.
106
Why doesn't an image fade away after staring at it for a period of time?
The reason an image doesn't fade away is that our eyes constantly make tiny movements, known as saccades, which prevent the image from staying on the same retinal spot for too long. This movement ensures that fresh receptor cells are always stimulated. In an experiment where a contact lens with a miniature projector was used to maintain a constant image on the retina, the image gradually faded away, showing that even the eye experiences sensory adaptation when the visual input is unchanging.
107
What is perceptual constancy?
Perceptual constancy is the ability to perceive an object as having a constant shape, size, color, or brightness, despite changes in the sensory input it creates. For example, as a door swings open and only its edge is visible, we still perceive it as a rectangular shape, even though its image on the retina changes. This ability helps us maintain a consistent perception of objects in the world around us.
108
What is color constancy?
Color constancy is the ability to perceive an object’s color as constant, even when the lighting conditions change. For example, when you move indoors from being outside, a white T-shirt may appear dimmer, but you still perceive it as white because your visual system adjusts for the change in lighting. This process helps us maintain consistent color perception, despite changes in the amount or type of light hitting an object.
109
Define illusions
Occur when the perceptual processes that normally help us correctly perceive the world around us are fooled by a particular situation so that we see something that does not exist or that is incorrect.
110
What is the Mueller-Lyer illusion?
The Mueller-Lyer illusion is a visual illusion in which two line segments of equal length appear to be different lengths due to the addition of arrow-like ends. The line segment at the bottom appears longer, even though both segments are the same length.
This illusion is believed to be caused by the misinterpretation of monocular depth cues, where the bottom line is perceived as an edge that would normally be farther away, and the top line as an edge that would be perceived as closer.
111
What is the moon illusion?
The moon illusion is a perceptual phenomenon where the moon appears much larger when it is near the horizon compared to when it is overhead, even though its actual size and retinal image remain the same. This illusion is influenced by monocular depth cues, such as position and aerial perspective, which make distant objects appear smaller. The presence of the horizon, including elements like trees, clouds, and buildings, further contributes to the illusion, making the moon seem farther away and thus larger when viewed near the horizon.
112
What is the Ponzo illusion?
The Ponzo illusion is a visual illusion in which two horizontal lines of equal length appear to be different sizes. The top line appears longer than the bottom one. This illusion occurs because of the monocular depth cue of linear perspective, which makes us perceive the top line as being farther away. We assume that if two objects cast the same size retinal image but are at different distances, the one farther away must be larger, causing the top line to appear longer.
113
How does prior knowledge influence perception?
Prior knowledge can influence perception by shaping how we interpret sensory information. Illusions, such as the Ponzo illusion, show that our perception may be altered by contextual cues or prior experiences, leading us to misperceive stimuli. However, the perceptual system is generally accurate in everyday life because humans are deeply connected with their environments, and this relationship helps integrate sensory information with cognition. This "embodiment" makes our perception more accurate in real-world situations, reducing the likelihood of illusions occurring outside of controlled lab conditions.
114
How has human factors psychology contributed to improving safety in aviation?
Human factors psychology has significantly improved aviation safety by applying principles of sensation and perception to the design of airplane controls and interfaces. Research by psychologists, such as Conrad Kraft, led to safety measures like copilot altitude calls during landing to counteract perceptual errors (e.g., the moon illusion) that could lead to early landings. Additionally, human factors psychologists redesigned airplane cockpits to reduce clutter, enhance readability, and increase functionality by making controls multifunctional and color-coded. They also applied sensory adaptation and perceptual contrast principles to optimize cockpit displays, ensuring they remain legible in various lighting conditions, thereby improving pilot performance and reducing human error.
115
What is sensory interaction?
Sensory interaction occurs when different senses work together, such as taste, smell, and touch combining to produce the flavor of food.
116
What does selective attention allow us to do?
Selective attention allows us to focus on some sensory experiences while tuning out others.
117
What is perceptual constancy?
Perceptual constancy allows us to perceive an object as the same, despite changes in sensation, such as size, shape, or color.
118
What is sensory adaptation?
Sensory adaptation occurs when we become less sensitive to constant stimuli, allowing us to focus on more important or changing aspects of our environment.
119
What are cognitive illusions?
Cognitive illusions are examples of how our expectations and prior knowledge can influence our perceptions, leading to misinterpretations, like the Muller-Lyer illusion.
120
How do emotions, motivations, desires, and culture influence perception?
Emotions, motivations, desires, and culture can shape how we perceive the world, affecting our interpretation of sensory information.
121
Consider our image of a door as it swings. When it is closed, we see it as rectangular, but when it is open, we see only its edge and it appears as a line. But we never perceive the door as changing shape as it swings. This is known as:
A) perceptual constancy.
B) constancy principle.
C) static perception.
D) principle of stability.
A)
