Week 11 Readings Flashcards
1
Q
What does the term “memory” encompass?
A
Memory includes abilities like working memory (holding and working with information briefly), episodic memory (remembering life events), and semantic memory (general world knowledge).
2
Q
What are the three processes involved in episodic memory?
A
Encoding (learning and connecting to past knowledge), storage (maintaining over time), and retrieval (accessing information when needed).
3
Q
What can cause forgetting or false memories?
A
Failures at any stage of encoding, storage, or retrieval.
4
Q
How can one improve memory?
A
By enhancing encoding processes and using techniques that ensure effective retrieval.
5
Q
What are some effective encoding techniques?
A
Relating new information to prior knowledge, forming mental images, and creating associations among information.
6
Q
What is the key to effective retrieval?
A
Developing strong cues that lead back to the encoded information.
7
Q
What are mnemonic systems, and why are they useful?
A
Mnemonic systems, used since ancient Greece, enhance memory by improving encoding and retrieval.
8
Q
What is working memory, and one example?
A
The ability to hold and work with information briefly, such as multiplying numbers without paper.
9
Q
What is episodic memory?
A
The ability to remember episodes of our lives, like recalling the events of a specific day.
10
Q
What is semantic memory?
A
A storehouse of permanent knowledge, including word meanings (e.g., “parasol”) and facts (e.g., 206 bones in the human body).
11
Q
What is collective memory?
A
Shared memory within a group, such as a family or community, including customs, historical events, and stories passed through generations.
12
Q
What is episodic memory commonly associated with?
A
It is typically what people think of as “memory,” such as recalling personal events or experiences.
13
Q
What type of memory loss is often referred to in Alzheimer’s disease?
A
Episodic memory loss, or the inability to recall events.
14
Q
Which type of memory is preserved in early-stage Alzheimer’s disease?
A
Semantic memory.
15
Q
What is autobiographical memory?
A
Memory of events from one’s entire life, like experiences in sixth grade, though the focus here is on recent episodic memories.
16
Q
What are the three necessary stages of learning and memory?
A
Encoding (initial learning), storage (maintaining information), and retrieval (accessing information when needed).
17
Q
What happens during encoding?
A
Information is learned and associated with cues, such as linking a name to a face.
18
Q
What are two types of memory errors?
A
Forgetting: Failure to recall stored information (e.g., not remembering someone’s name).
Misremembering: False recall or recognition (e.g., calling someone by the wrong name).
19
Q
What is required for successful memory?
A
All three stages—encoding, storage, and retrieval—must work properly.
20
Q
What is encoding, and why is it challenging in real life?
A
Encoding is the initial process of perceiving and learning information. In real life, the environment is too rich with sights, sounds, and thoughts to encode everything, making it selective and prolific.
21
Q
What are the two principles of encoding?
A
Encoding is selective (we focus on some events and ignore others) and prolific (we are constantly processing events but focus more on unusual occurrences).
22
Q
How does novelty affect encoding?
A
Unusual or unexpected events, like seeing a giraffe on campus, capture our attention and are more likely to be encoded.
23
Q
Why might an unusual event, like seeing a giraffe on campus, be remembered for a long time?
A
Distinctiveness—events that stand out from similar ones—helps fix them in memory for years.
24
Q
What is distinctiveness in memory?
A
The quality of an event standing out from a background of similar events, making it more memorable (Hunt, 2003).
25
What is a flashbulb memory?
A vivid, detailed memory of learning important news, often tied to emotional and distinctive events, like a "flash photograph" in the mind (Brown & Kulik, 1977).
Their distinctiveness and emotionality make them more likely to be permanently etched in memory.
26
What is recoding in the encoding process?
Recoding involves transforming information into a format we can better understand, such as using acronyms like ROY G BIV to remember rainbow colors.
27
How can recoding introduce errors?
Errors occur when we add new information during encoding and later remember it as part of the original experience.
28
What strategies improve memory retention during study?
Think about the meaning of events and relate them to prior knowledge to form associations (Craik & Lockhart, 1972).
Use vivid imagery to make information more memorable, even verbal details (Bower & Reitman, 1972).
Form distinctive memories that stand out and create links or associations to aid retrieval (Hunt & McDaniel, 1993).
29
What is the DRM effect?
The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) effect describes the phenomenon where people falsely recognize related, unpresented words (e.g., "window") from a list of related words.
The words in the list trigger related thoughts (like "window"), leading people to encode them as if they were part of the original experience.
30
How can humans create false memories through inferences?
We automatically make associations and inferences, sometimes remembering these inferences as if they were actual experiences.
31
What are pragmatic inferences?
Inferences made when something is not explicitly stated but we guess the underlying intention or meaning, like inferring why someone doesn’t want to go out.
32
What example did Brewer (1977) use to illustrate false memories from inferences?
Participants remembered the sentence “The karate champion hit the cinder block” as “The karate champion broke the cinder block” due to the inference that hitting it likely caused it to break.
33
How do experiences change the brain?
Every experience we have leads to changes in the brain as we encode them, creating new impressions and altering the brain’s neural structures.
34
What are memory traces (engrams)?
Memory traces, or engrams, are the physical changes in the brain that represent stored memories.
35
What is the process of consolidation in memory formation?
Consolidation is the process through which neural changes occur after learning, creating a memory trace of an experience.
36
How do psychologists view memory traces?
Psychologists see memory traces as the physical changes in the brain that represent our experiences, though the exact neural processes remain a focus of neurobiological research.
37
How does memory work if memory traces aren't perfect?
Memory is reconstructive: we reconstruct past events based on memory traces and our current beliefs, not by reading a faithful record of the past.
38
What is an example of reconstructive memory?
If you remember someone holding the door open for you during a fight at a bar, this positive memory may influence your recall, leading you to favor the "nice guy" in the fight, even if you don’t remember the exact sequence of events.
39
What is the difference between reconstructive and reproductive memory?
Reconstructive memory involves piecing together past events with memory traces and beliefs, while reproductive memory would be a perfect recreation of past experiences, which does not happen in reality.
40
What is the retention interval in memory?
The retention interval is the time between learning and testing, during which memories may consolidate or be disrupted.
41
What is retroactive interference?
Retroactive interference occurs when new experiences (e.g., new lunches) during the retention interval interfere with recalling older memories (e.g., a lunch from 17 days ago).
42
What is proactive interference?
Proactive interference happens when older memories interfere with encoding new information, such as when your native language affects learning a second language.
43
What is retroactive interference's role in forgetting?
Retroactive interference is a major cause of forgetting, as new information can disrupt the recall of older memories.
44
What is the misinformation effect?
The misinformation effect occurs when new information, such as others' descriptions of an event, alters a person's memory of that event during the retention interval.
45
How can misinformation affect eyewitness memory?
Eyewitnesses may remember an event differently if exposed to misleading information after the event, sometimes recalling details based on others' perspectives instead of their own.
46
How can correct information during the retention interval affect memory?
Providing correct information during the retention interval can improve the accuracy of the witness’s memory.
47
Why is retrieval considered the key process in memory according to Endel Tulving?
Retrieval is crucial because without it, even encoded and stored information would be useless. Only a small portion of memories are consciously accessed later.
48
What is the difference between available and accessible information in memory?
Available information refers to what is stored in memory, while accessible information is what we can retrieve. Accessible info represents only a small part of what's available.
49
Why do we sometimes recall information after giving up on remembering it?
This occurs because retrieval can happen unconsciously or spontaneously, even after we stop trying to recall the information.
50
How does multiple-choice testing relate to memory retrieval?
In multiple-choice tests, we often recognize the correct answer easily, even if we couldn't recall it initially, illustrating the difference between recall and recognition.
51
What is the encoding specificity principle?
The encoding specificity principle states that retrieval cues are most effective when they match or overlap the memory trace of the experience.
52
How does the encoding specificity principle apply to memory retrieval?
For example, hearing a song that you associated with a memorable experience can trigger recall of the entire event, as the song overlaps with the memory trace of the experience.
53
What was the result of the Godden and Baddeley (1975) experiment?
Participants who took the test in the same location where they learned the words recalled more words than those who took the test in a different location, demonstrating the effect of context on retrieval.
54
What is the cue overload principle?
The cue overload principle states that a retrieval cue becomes less effective if it matches too many items in memory.
55
How does the cue overload principle affect memory retrieval?
If a cue, like "recall the picture," matches multiple items in a list, it becomes less useful because it is overloaded with too many associations.
56
How does distinctiveness influence memory retrieval according to the cue overload principle?
A unique or distinctive item (like a picture among words) is more easily recalled because the cue is not overloaded with competing memories.
57
What is the difference between a production test and a recognition test?
A production test involves recalling information (e.g., free recall), while a recognition test involves selecting the correct information from a set (e.g., multiple-choice).
58
Why do recognition tests not always provide perfect memory indexes?
Recognition tests may fail to accurately assess memory because people can fail to recognize a target but later recall it with different cues, due to the nature of retrieval cues.
59
: How can recall sometimes outperform recognition?
Recall can outperform recognition when the cue for recall better matches how the memory was encoded, as in the example where a first name cue ("George Bernard ________") leads to better recall than recognition of the surname "Shaw."
60
What role does the encoding specificity principle play in memory retrieval?
The encoding specificity principle suggests that memory retrieval is more successful when the cues used for recall match the way the information was originally encoded.
61
Why might the cue "William" not effectively lead to recalling Shakespeare’s name?
The cue "William" is overloaded with many possible associations (e.g., Prince William, William Yeats), making it less distinctive and less effective in retrieving the specific memory of Shakespeare.
62
What is the recognition failure of recallable words?
It is a phenomenon where recognition can fail despite the information being recallable, highlighting that the effectiveness of retrieval cues depends on how the information was encoded.
63
What is the testing effect (or retrieval practice effect)?
The testing effect refers to the phenomenon where retrieving a memory makes it more likely to be retrieved again in the future, strengthening the memory.
64
What is retrieval-induced forgetting?
Retrieval-induced forgetting is when retrieving some information can cause us to forget related information, making it harder to recall other memories associated with the same context.
65
How does the act of retrieval affect memory?
The act of retrieval can both strengthen the retrieved memory, making it more accessible in the future, and harm related memories, potentially causing forgetting of associated information.
66
What does the reconstructive nature of memory refer to?
The reconstructive nature of memory means that when we recall distant memories, we weave together the concrete details with assumptions and preferences to create a coherent, sometimes altered, narrative.
67
How can repeated retelling of a story affect memory?
Repeated retelling of a story can strengthen both accurate memories and errors or false memories, making the inaccuracies become perceived as facts over time.
68
How can false memories be created?
False memories can be created simply by hearing vivid stories or descriptions, which can implant details that were not originally part of the event in question.
69
What is the peg word technique in memory?
The peg word technique is a mnemonic device where you use a set of pre-learned "peg words" (e.g., numbers or rhymes) to "hang" memories by creating vivid, interactive images that link the target items to the peg words.
70
What is a "memory palace"?
A memory palace is an elaborate mental framework where different locations and objects are used to store and recall information. It is a spatial memory technique that involves mentally walking through familiar places and associating pieces of information with specific locations.
Simon Reinhard uses hundreds of memory palaces and associates each four-digit number with a specific image from a set of 10,000 images. He places these images in distinct locations within his memory palaces, allowing him to recall long strings of digits quickly and accurately.
71
When he was 10 Billy won the city chess championship. Thirty years later, he remembers shaking hands with his opponent and lifting the trophy. These are ______memories.
episodic
72
Which of the following would be the best example of autobiographical memory?
a) 17-year old Marcia remembers that the deadline to submit her application to Stanford University is November 15th.
b) Charles remembers his favorite reality television show will have its final episode next Wednesday night.
c) Jamal remembers the chemical formula for glucose is C6H1206..
d) Nikila remembers that the recipe for tuna noodle casserole does not include melted butter.
e) 25-year old Lizanne remembers going to sleepaway camp when she was 10 years old.
e)
73
Think back to the very first car you saw on the road today. What was the driver wearing? If you’re like most people, you don’t have any idea what the answer is. Why?
a) The clothes of that driver faded out of my working memory.
b) I am currently experiencing proactive interference of that memory.
c) I’m experiencing a case of source misattribution.
d) Autobiographical memories such as these are usually unavailable for voluntary retrieval.
e) I did not encode the information.
e)
74
When Tyler was a child, he got separated from his mother in a department store, but she found him after 2 minutes and all was well. Now, as an adult, he mis-remembers the event as having been a ten-minute separation, during which time store security intervened. This may be an example of the ______effect.
misinformation
75
Veronica scores very poorly on a prep test, but after taking similar tests three more times she earns a perfect score. This improvement is an example of the ______effect.
retrieval practice
76
What are two reasons why we might forget?
- Encoding failure
or
- Decay (memories fading)
77
What did Hermann Ebbinghaus find in his research on forgetting?
Ebbinghaus found that memories tend to fade over time, with the most forgetting occurring shortly after learning. His research showed that if a memory is not rehearsed, it may diminish or become inaccessible.
78
How does the passage of time affect memory according to Ebbinghaus?
Ebbinghaus's research suggested that as time passes, memories become harder to recall, with the greatest loss occurring early on after learning, especially if the memory is not actively rehearsed.
79
How does interference affect memory?
New experiences can interfere with and disrupt recent memories. If the consolidation process is interrupted by new encoding, the original memory trace may not fully develop, leading to forgetting.
80
What is memory consolidation?
Memory consolidation is the process of transferring memories from the hippocampus to more durable representations in the cortex. If this process is disrupted by new experiences, the memory may be forgotten.
81
What is temporary forgetting?
Temporary forgetting occurs when a memory exists but cannot be accessed due to a lack of appropriate retrieval cues, rather than the memory being permanently lost.
82
What role do retrieval cues play in remembering information?
Retrieval cues are essential for bringing forgotten memories back to mind. They act as reminders that trigger the recall of information that might otherwise seem inaccessible.
83
What are the two types of interference?
he two types of interference are proactive interference, where old memories block the learning of new ones, and retroactive interference, where new memories block the retrieval of old ones.
84
What are the 5 impediments to remembering (Hertel & Calcaterra, 2005)
1. Encoding failures - we don't learn information in the first place
2. Decay - memories fade over time
3. Inadequate retrieval cues - we lack sufficient reminders
4. Interference - other memories get in the way
5. Trying not to remember - we deliberately attempt to keep things out of mind
85
How might diversionary thoughts help in suppressing a memory?
Generating diversionary thoughts, like focusing on positive experiences, can help replace the unwanted memory with more pleasant associations, ultimately making the original memory harder to recall.
86
What is amnesia?
Amnesia is a profound form of forgetting that involves severe memory loss, often caused by injury or disease, and can affect the ability to recall personal memories or form new ones.
87
What was the result of H. M.’s brain surgery?
The surgery removed both medial temporal lobes to alleviate epilepsy, which reduced his seizures but caused anterograde amnesia—an inability to form new long-term memories—while preserving general intelligence and short-term memory.
88
How did H. M.'s memory work post-surgery?
H. M. could remember things temporarily in his short-term memory but could not retain them once his attention shifted. He was unable to recall events, conversations, or recognize faces from the same day.
89
What type of memory was H. M. unable to form?
H. M. had an impairment in declarative memory, the conscious recall of facts and events, but could still learn new motor skills, showing that non-declarative (procedural) memory remained intact.
90
How did H. M.’s case contribute to understanding memory systems?
H. M.'s case demonstrated the distinction between declarative and non-declarative memory systems and showed that the hippocampus plays a critical role in forming new declarative memories.
91
Define declarative memory.
Conscious memories for facts and events.
92
What is retrograde amnesia? How did H.M. experience this?
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve memories formed before the onset of amnesia. It often occurs alongside anterograde amnesia, with more recent memories being lost while older memories are retained.
H. M. experienced retrograde amnesia with a temporal gradient. He could remember childhood events but struggled to recall memories from the few years prior to his surgery.
93
How is temporally graded retrograde amnesia different from other types?
Temporally graded retrograde amnesia is characterized by the loss of more recent memories while older memories remain intact. This is a common pattern seen in amnesia cases, including H. M. (Hodges, 1994).
94
How do amnesiac patients with hippocampal damage typically present?
Amnesiac patients with hippocampal and medial temporal lobe damage typically display a similar clinical profile to H. M., including anterograde amnesia and, in some cases, retrograde amnesia, depending on the extent of the damage.
95
What is the relationship between the extent of hippocampal damage and amnesia?
The degree of anterograde and retrograde amnesia depends on the extent of medial temporal lobe damage. Greater damage leads to more extensive memory impairments (Reed & Squire, 1998).
96
How does anterograde amnesia support the role of the hippocampus?
Anterograde amnesia provides evidence that the hippocampus is essential for forming long-lasting declarative memories. Damage to the hippocampus prevents the creation of new declarative memories.
97
What does temporally graded retrograde amnesia suggest about memory consolidation?
Temporally graded retrograde amnesia suggests that the hippocampus is involved in memory consolidation. Memories initially depend on the hippocampus but, over time, become consolidated and stored in the cortex, making them less reliant on the hippocampus (Squire & Alvarez, 1995).
98
Why could H. M. remember remote memories but not recent ones?
H. M. could remember remote memories because they were fully consolidated and no longer relied on the hippocampus. More recent memories, however, had not yet undergone full consolidation and were lost due to hippocampal damage.
99
What is the difference between organic and functional (dissociative) amnesia?
Organic amnesia is caused by brain injury or disease, while functional (dissociative) amnesia involves memory loss with no clear neurological cause, often linked to psychological factors or trauma (Kihlstrom, 2005).
100
How does the clinical profile of dissociative amnesia differ from organic amnesia?
Dissociative amnesia is characterized by retrograde memory loss, often related to autobiographical memories and trauma, whereas organic amnesia involves more generalized memory deficits due to brain damage, affecting both recent and remote memories.
101
What is a dissociative fugue state?
A dissociative fugue state is an extreme form of dissociative amnesia, where an individual loses most or all of their autobiographical memories and sense of personal identity, often leading them to wander, unaware of who they are or how they got to a new location.
102
How permanent is the memory loss in dissociative amnesia compared to organic amnesia?
The memory loss in dissociative amnesia is generally less permanent than in organic amnesia, with many individuals regaining their memories over time.
103
A region of the brain important for memory is:
a) Pons.
b) Hippocampus.
c) Frontal Lobe.
d) Pituitary
b) Hippocampus
104
What is the misinformation effect?
A phenomenon where exposure to erroneous information after an event contaminates memory.
105
How does the misinformation effect influence memory?
It causes incorrect recall of details, such as a perpetrator’s appearance or objects like a nonexistent barn.
106
Why are witnesses’ memories susceptible to contamination after a crime?
Witnesses often discuss the event, reinforcing common memories but also introducing errors due to differing perspectives.
107
How do expectations and beliefs influence memory?
They shape memories through schemata, or memory templates, based on recurring patterns in everyday life.
Schemata are memory templates that help us expect and remember schema-consistent details, even if they weren’t present.
108
Why do schemata lead to generic or inaccurate memories?
Because we don’t focus on redundant or expected details, leading to the recall of schema-consistent information regardless of its actual presence.
109
How distinguishable are false memories from true memories once implanted?
False memories are extremely difficult to distinguish from true memories.
Bernstein & Loftus (2009a) and Laney & Loftus (2008).
110
Professor Yorba asks, “What did I tell you about the Crimean War last Friday,” when in fact she did not mention it at all. Several students claim to ‘remember’ her presentation of the war. This error demonstrates the ______effect.
misinformation
111
If you were giving testimony after having witnessed a car crash, which of the following questions would be most likely to cause you to say that you remembered seeing broken glass on the pavement?
- “Which side of the car was hit in the collision?”.
- “Were any of the car windows broken in the accident?”.
- “Do you remember seeing any broken glass on the pavement?” .
- “Was there any broken glass on the pavement?”.
- “Do you remember the broken glass on the pavement?”
- “Do you remember seeing any broken glass on the pavement?” .
- “Do you remember the broken glass on the pavement?”
112
When Nessa flipped through photographs trying to find the perpetrator of a crime she witnessed, she did not see the suspect because that person was not included in the photo spread. Instead, all the pictures were ______.
fillers
113
As part of a study, Jonathan’s family tells about the time he hit a home run in a baseball game. They say this several times and eventually Jonathan comes to “remember” the athletic triumph, even though it never happened. This demonstrates how ______can be created.
false memories
