Week 4 Readings Flashcards
1
Q
What are knowledge emotions?
A
A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring.
These emotions come about when unexpected and unfamiliar events happen in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run.
2
Q
What are the functionalist theories of emotion?
A
Theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history.
3
Q
Where do emotions come from?
a) how we think about what is happening
b) what is happening
A
emotion theories contend that emotions come from how we think about what is happening in the world, not what is literally happening.
After all, if things in the world directly caused emotions, everyone would always have the same emotion in response to something.
4
Q
What are appraisal theories?
A
Evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs.
Appraisal theories of emotion contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals, such as whether an event furthers or hinders a goal and whether an event can be coped with.
Is this relevant to me? Does it further or hinder my goals? Can I deal with it or do something about it? Did someone do it on purpose? Different emotions come from different answers to these appraisal questions.
5
Q
How many appraisals does surprise have and what are they?
A
Surprise has only one appraisal: A single “expectedness check” seems to be involved
6
Q
Interest is an ____________ form of learning.
A
Interest is an intrinsically motivated form of learning.
7
Q
What does intrinsically motivated form of learning mean?
A
Learning that is “for its own sake”—such as learning motivated by curiosity and wonder—instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval.
8
Q
unlike surprise, interest involves an additional appraisal of ______ potential
A
unlike surprise, interest involves an additional appraisal of coping potential
9
Q
What is coping potential?
A
In appraisal theories, coping potential refers to people’s evaluations of their ability to manage what is happening. When coping potential is high, people feel capable of handling the challenge at hand
10
Q
Individual differences in interest are captured by ___________
A
Individual differences in interest are captured by trait curiosity
11
Q
What is trait curiosity?
A
Stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious.
It is a facet of openness to experience (One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe.)
12
Q
What is impasse-driven learning?
A
An approach to instruction that motivates active learning by having learners work through perplexing barriers.
13
Q
What two appraisals does awe come from?
A
The two appraisals leading to awe are:
1) Appraising something as vast or beyond the normal scope of experience, creating a huge inconsistency with existing knowledge, and
2) Engaging in accommodation, which involves changing one’s beliefs to fit the new experience.
14
Q
What is a mild, everyday form of awe?
A
Chills
15
Q
Knowledge emotions
A
A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about when unexpected and unfamiliar events happen in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run.
16
Q
What is classical conditioning?
What stimuli can be used in classical conditioning?
A
A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eventually triggering a similar response.
A wide range of signals like tones, lights, tastes, and settings.
17
Q
What was Ivan Pavlov’s famous experiment?
A
Pavlov rang a bell before giving a dog food, and after repeated pairings, the dog began salivating at the sound of the bell alone.
18
Q
What does Pavlovian conditioning demonstrate?
A
It shows how animals (and humans) can learn to associate neutral signals with important events, changing their behavior.
19
Q
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
A
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any learning, like food making a dog salivate.
20
Q
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
A
A natural, instinctual reaction to an unconditioned stimulus, like salivating when presented with food.
21
Q
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A
A previously neutral signal that gains importance after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, such as a bell in Pavlov’s experiment.
22
Q
What is a conditioned response (CR)?
A
A learned response to a conditioned stimulus, like salivating in response to the sound of a bell.
23
Q
How does a conditioned response (CR) differ from an unconditioned response (UR)?
A
The conditioned response is similar to the unconditioned response but occurs after learning and is triggered by the conditioned stimulus.
24
Q
In Pavlov’s experiment, what role does the bell play?
A
The bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) that, after being paired with food (US), causes the dog to salivate (CR).
25
Give an example of a conditioned response (CR) in everyday life.
Feeling hungry when seeing a fast food logo, even though no food is present.
26
What is operant conditioning?
A type of learning where a behavior is associated with the occurrence of a significant event, like a rat pressing a lever to receive food.
aka instrument conditioning
27
Who first studied operant conditioning?
Edward Thorndike, and later extended by B.F. Skinner.
28
What is an operant behavior?
A voluntary action that operates on the environment, such as a rat pressing a lever to obtain food.
29
What is a "Skinner box"?
A laboratory apparatus used to study operant conditioning, where a rat presses a lever to receive food.
29
How is operant conditioning different from classical conditioning?
Operant conditioning associates a behavior with a consequence, whereas classical conditioning associates a stimulus with a response.
29
How does reinforcement work in operant conditioning with the rat example?
In operant conditioning, once the rat realizes that pressing the lever results in receiving food, the behavior becomes reinforced. The food acts as a reinforcer, strengthening the rat's behavior of pressing the lever to receive the reward, similar to how a shortcut in a video game reinforces repeating the same path for a better outcome.
30
What is an operant behavior in operant conditioning?
Operant behavior is a voluntary action that "operates" on the environment. It is an action the animal itself makes, like a rat pressing a lever to receive food, which produces a significant consequence.
30
What does Thorndike's law of effect state in operant conditioning?
Thorndike’s law of effect states that behaviors followed by positive (satisfying) effects are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by negative (painful/annoying) consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Positive effects are called reinforcers, and negative effects are referred to as punishers.
31
What is the key difference between operant and classical conditioning regarding behavior?
Operant conditioning studies how consequences influence voluntary behavior, such as a rat choosing to press a lever. Classical conditioning, by contrast, involves involuntary behavior, such as a dog drooling when it hears a bell.
32
What is the difference in how responses are triggered in classical versus operant conditioning?
In classical conditioning, the response (e.g., salivation) is elicited by a stimulus that comes before it.
In operant conditioning, the animal behaves as if it has learned to associate a behavior with a significant event.
In operant conditioning, the behavior (e.g., lever pressing) is not triggered by any particular stimulus but is emitted, highlighting that operant behaviors are voluntary in nature.
33
What is taste aversion conditioning, and why is it clinically relevant?
Taste aversion conditioning occurs when a flavor becomes associated with illness, leading to its avoidance. For example, someone who gets sick after drinking tequila may develop a strong dislike for its taste and smell. This is clinically relevant in cases like chemotherapy, where patients often develop aversions to foods or places associated with their treatment-induced nausea.
34
How does classical conditioning relate to anxiety disorders in humans?
Classical conditioning can create fear and anxiety when neutral cues are paired with traumatic events.
For example, if a tone is played before a mild shock to a rat’s feet, the tone will later elicit fear. In humans, similar conditioning occurs with cues like closed spaces, which become associated with panic attacks, contributing to anxiety disorders such as phobias and panic disorders.
Here, rather than a physical response (like drooling), the CS triggers an emotion.
35
How can classical conditioning influence responses to drugs?
Classical conditioning can cause drug-associated cues (e.g., smells, environments) to elicit conditioned compensatory responses.
For example, if someone regularly takes morphine, a cue signaling the drug’s imminent arrival may make the person more sensitive to pain. This happens because the body anticipates the drug’s effect, preparing by increasing pain sensitivity, which can reduce the drug’s overall impact (Siegel, 1989).
36
What are the implications of conditioned compensatory responses for drug users?
Conditioned compensatory responses can lead to increased drug tolerance in familiar environments, making users more vulnerable to overdose when taking drugs in new settings without those cues.
This can result from the body not anticipating the drug's effects, as the familiar cues that typically elicit compensatory responses are absent.
Additionally, conditioned compensatory responses (which include heightened pain sensitivity and decreased body temperature, among others) discomfort caused by these responses may motivate continued drug use to alleviate them, highlighting the role of classical conditioning in drug addiction and dependence.
37
How do classical cues affect a rat that has learned to press a lever for drugs?
If cues signal that the drug is coming soon, like the sound of a lever squeaking, the rat will press the lever more persistently than if those cues weren’t present.
38
What is the final effect of classical cues on operant behavior?
Classical cues can motivate ongoing operant behavior, making the subject work harder for a reward when those cues signal that the reward is coming soon.
39
How do food-associated cues influence behavior in operant conditioning?
In the presence of food-associated cues (e.g., smells), a rat or even a human will work harder to obtain food.
40
What effect do negative cues, like fear signals, have on behavior in operant conditioning?
In the presence of negative cues, such as signals of fear, organisms like rats or humans will work harder to avoid situations that might lead to trauma.
41
How do classical conditioned stimuli (CS) contribute to behavior?
Classical CSs can motivate organisms to work harder for rewards or to avoid negative outcomes, influencing significant behavioral phenomena.
42
How does the blocking effect illustrate the importance of surprise in classical conditioning?
The blocking effect shows that a US needs to be surprising for an association to be learned, and if a stimulus already predicts the US, the introduction of a new stimulus alongside it won’t result in new learning.
43
In the blocking effect, why doesn’t the animal learn the association between stimulus B and the US?
The animal doesn’t learn the association between stimulus B and the US because stimulus A already predicts the US, making the US unsurprising when it occurs with stimulus B.
44
What is the "blocking" effect in classical conditioning?
The blocking effect occurs when an animal first learns to associate one stimulus (CS A) with a US, and then fails to learn an association between a second stimulus (CS B) and the US when both are presented together, because the earlier conditioning of CS A "blocks" the learning of CS B.
45
What is prediction error?
When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising).
Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.
46
Define a conditioned compensatory response.
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response.
It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.
47
What is required for learning to occur through classical conditioning?
There must be a "surprise" or a difference between what the animal expects (based on cues) and what actually happens during the conditioning trial. This difference is called "prediction error."
48
What is a "prediction error" in classical conditioning?
A prediction error is the chance that a conditioned stimulus won’t lead to the expected outcome, which is necessary for learning to occur.
49
Why is prediction error important for classical conditioning?
Prediction error is important because learning happens when the outcome is different from what is expected based on the conditioned stimuli.
50
What does the phenomenon of blocking in classical conditioning demonstrate about the learning process?
Blocking shows that the learning process prioritizes the most valid predictors of significant events and tends to ignore less useful cues.
For example, if you learn that star-shaped stickers indicate discounted items in a supermarket, you won't need to learn about another cue (like bright orange star-shaped price tags in a different supermarket) if the first cue already provides sufficient information (they're already star-shaped so the orange colour has no effect).
51
What factors contribute to the strength of classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning is strongest when the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are intense or salient, relatively new, and when the organism hasn't been frequently exposed to them.
52
What is preparedness in classical conditioning?
Preparedness refers to an organism's biological inclination to associate specific CS and US based on evolutionary factors.
Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.
53
Why are flavors more likely to be associated with illness rather than visual cues like color?
Rats and humans are naturally inclined to associate illness with flavor because foods are most commonly experienced by taste, making it easier to avoid harmful foods in the future.
54
What is extinction in classical conditioning, and how is it applied in therapeutic settings?
Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus (US), leading to the conditioned response (CR) being eliminated. For example, if Pavlov rings the bell without providing food, the dog will eventually stop drooling. In therapy, this principle is used to help individuals overcome fears (e.g., showing a person with a fear of spiders pictures of spiders without any negative consequence), allowing the CS to no longer predict the CR (fear).
55
What is extinction?
Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines).
Behaviors that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished.”
56
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
Spontaneous recovery occurs when a conditioned response (CR) re-emerges after a period of extinction and a lapse in exposure to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
For example, if someone no longer feels anxiety from the smell of chalkboards after years of not experiencing detention, encountering the smell again later can suddenly trigger that anxiety once more, demonstrating that the original association has not been destroyed, just dormant.
57
What is the renewal effect in classical conditioning, and how does it relate to the context of learning?
The renewal effect refers to the phenomenon where a conditioned response (CR) reappears after extinction when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is tested in a new context or environment.
For example, smelling chalkboards in a new building may evoke feelings associated with detention, even after extinction.
This suggests that extinction inhibits the learned behavior rather than erasing it, and this inhibition is expressed primarily in the context in which the behavior was originally learned.
58
How do the principles of classical conditioning relate to instrumental learning, and what factors affect the strength of both?
The principles of classical conditioning and instrumental learning are closely related, as both involve the association between stimuli and responses.
The strength of learning in both processes increases with the intensity of the reinforcer or punisher.
Additionally, if an instrumental behavior is no longer reinforced, it will undergo extinction, similar to classical conditioning.
While many rules of associative learning apply to both, there are unique aspects of instrumental learning worth exploring further.
59
What is stimulus control in operant conditioning, and how is it demonstrated in both laboratory and real-world settings?
Stimulus control in operant conditioning occurs when a specific stimulus signals that a certain behavior will be reinforced.
In a laboratory setting, this can be illustrated by a rat that learns to press a lever only when a light in the Skinner box is on; pressing the lever in the absence of the light results in no food reward.
In everyday life, this is akin to waiting in a turn lane at a traffic light, where drivers know to proceed only when they see a green arrow; not in the presence of just a green light.
60
What is stimulus control?
When an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it.
61
What is the stimulus controlling the operant response called?
A discriminative stimulus
62
What is a discriminative stimulus?
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.
63
What is a discriminative stimulus in operant conditioning, and how does it function in comparison to a classical conditioned stimulus?
A discriminative stimulus is a cue that sets the occasion for an operant response to occur, indicating that a behavior will be reinforced if performed.
Unlike a classical conditioned stimulus, which directly elicits a response (like salivation in Pavlov's dogs), a discriminative stimulus does not compel the behavior itself.
For example, a canvas in front of an artist does not force her to paint; instead, it creates the opportunity for painting behavior to occur.
64
How can operant conditioning methods be used to study higher cognitive processes in animals, such as categorization?
Operant conditioning methods can study higher cognitive processes by using stimuli to train animals to make discriminations.
For example, pigeons can be trained to peck specific buttons in a Skinner box in response to images of flowers, cars, chairs, or people displayed on a screen. Each button corresponds to a different image, and pigeons can learn to categorize and peck the correct buttons even for new images they've never encountered before.
This demonstrates that stimulus-control methods can effectively explore how animals learn to categorize stimuli.
65
What is a key aspect of operant conditioning regarding the selection of behaviors, and how do reinforcers influence this choice?
A key aspect of operant conditioning is that the response involves choosing one behavior over others.
For example, a student may choose to go to a bar instead of studying at home, just as a rat may choose to press a lever instead of engaging in other activities like sleeping.
Each alternative behavior has its own associated reinforcers, and the tendency to perform a particular action is influenced by the reinforcers earned for that action as well as those earned for the alternative behaviors.
66
What is the quantitative law of effect in operant conditioning?
The quantitative law of effect states that the effects of reinforcing one behavior depend significantly on the reinforcement earned for the behavior's alternatives.
For example, in a Skinner box with two levers, if a pigeon learns that one lever rewards two food pellets while the other rewards one, it will choose the first lever.
However, if the first lever is more strenuous to reach, the cost of effort may outweigh the reward.
In general, a reinforcer is less effective if many alternative reinforcers are available, such as achievements at work or affection from family, which may diminish the appeal of stronger reinforcers like alcohol, sex, or drugs.
67
How has modern research changed the understanding of reinforcers in operant conditioning compared to Thorndike's original view?
Modern research indicates that reinforcers do more than just strengthen or "stamp in" behaviors; animals learn about the specific consequences of each behavior and will choose to perform a behavior based on how much they currently want or "value" its consequence.
This means that the motivation to engage in a behavior is influenced by the perceived value of its outcome, rather than being a simple reinforcement of the behavior itself.
68
What is the reinforcer devaluation effect?
The reinforcer devaluation effect is a phenomenon where an animal, such as a rat, learns to avoid a reinforcer (like sucrose) after it is paired with an aversive outcome (like illness), showing that the animal can integrate knowledge of both the action and the current value of the reinforcer.
69
What is the reinforcer devaluation effect?
The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable.
70
In the reinforcer devaluation effect experiment, what happens after a rat learns to associate one of the reinforcers (sucrose) with illness?
After the rat learns to associate the sucrose with illness, it will avoid pressing the lever that dispenses sucrose in a subsequent test, demonstrating that it has learned to combine the memory of the action with the negative value of the reinforcer.
71
What does it mean when a behavior is described as "goal-directed"?
A behavior is described as "goal-directed" when it is influenced by the current value of its associated goal, meaning the animal's actions are based on how much it wants or does not want the reinforcer.
72
How can a goal-directed action turn into a habit over time?
If an animal, such as a rat, frequently and repeatedly performs an instrumental action (like pressing a lever), the action can become automatic and routine, transforming it into a habit that is less sensitive to changes in the value of the reinforcer.
73
What happens to the rat's behavior after it has developed a habit of lever pressing, even when the reinforcer is aversive?
Even when the sucrose is paired with illness, the rat may continue to press the lever out of habit, as the instrumental response becomes automatic and is no longer influenced by the negative value of the reinforcer.
74
What is an aversive stimulus?
Something that an organism will seek to avoid, often because it is associated with negative outcomes (like pain, discomfort, or illness).
75
How are classical and operant conditioning related in real-life situations?
Although classical and operant conditioning are typically studied separately, they often occur simultaneously in real-life scenarios.
For example, when a person is reinforced for drinking alcohol or overeating, they learn these behaviors in the presence of specific stimuli, such as a pub, friends, a restaurant, or a couch in front of the TV. These stimuli can also become associated with the reinforcer, illustrating how classical and operant conditioning are intertwined in everyday life.
76
How is the learning process in instrumental conditioning similar to classical conditioning?
Both processes emphasize elements like surprise and prediction error during learning.
77
How can the value of a reinforcer be influenced in instrumental learning?
The value of a reinforcer can be influenced by other reinforcers earned for different behaviors in the situation.
78
What is instrumental conditioning?
the learning process where an organism learns to associate a specific response with a particular outcome.
79
What component of learning does the S – O association relate to?
The S – O association relates to the classical conditioning component of learning.
where S is stimulus and O is outcome
80
What component of learning does the R – O association relate to?
instrumental conditioning
where R is response, and O it outcome
81
How does a stimulus affect an organism's behavior in terms of approach or retreat?
A positive stimulus evokes approach behavior, while a negative stimulus prompts retreat behavior.
82
What happens when a stimulus is presented in the context of instrumental conditioning?
Presenting the stimulus will prompt the instrumental response associated with it.
83
What occurs after extensive practice in the S – R association?
After extensive practice, the stimulus may begin to directly elicit the response.
84
How does the S – R association affect the way an organism performs a response?
The response becomes automatic, relying less on conscious thought about the outcome’s value. (habit)
85
What does S – (R – O) represent in the context of learning?
S – (R – O) represents the link between the stimulus (S) and the response-outcome association (R – O).
86
How does a stimulus function in relation to the response-outcome association?
The stimulus signals that the response-outcome relationship is now in effect, indicating when the operant response can be reinforced.
87
What does it mean when we say a stimulus can "set the occasion" for an operant response?
It means the stimulus prepares the context for the response-reinforcer relationship to occur.
88
How might a painter respond to the presence of a canvas in relation to the S – (R – O) association?
The canvas signals to the painter that the act of painting will now be reinforced by positive consequences, motivating them to begin painting.
89
What role does the stimulus play in reinforcing behavior in the context of operant conditioning?
The stimulus acts as a cue that indicates the opportunity for reinforcement is available, prompting the organism to engage in the associated behavior.
90
In what scenario is observational learning commonly observed?
Observational learning is often observed in social settings, such as children learning games or social behaviors by watching peers.
91
What is the main idea of Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory?
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that individuals can learn novel responses through the observation of key others’ behaviors.
92
Does observational learning require reinforcement?
No, observational learning does not necessarily require reinforcement; it primarily relies on the presence of social models.
93
Who are considered social models in observational learning?
Social models are typically individuals of higher status or authority, such as parents, teachers, and police officers. OR your friends who know more about a game you want to play
94
Can peers serve as social models in observational learning?
Yes, peers can also serve as social models if they demonstrate knowledge or skills in a certain context, such as children teaching each other how to play a game.
95
What are the four parts of Bandura's observational learning process?
1. Attention: The learner must pay attention to the behavior being observed.
2. Retention: The learner must retain the observed behavior in memory.
3. Initiation: The learner must be able to execute or initiate the learned behavior.
4. Motivation: The observer must possess the motivation to engage in observational learning.
96
What was the aim of Bandura's "Bobo doll experiment," and what were its main findings?
The experiment aimed to explore observational learning by having children observe an adult interacting with a clown doll ("Bobo"). Children who saw the adult behave aggressively toward Bobo were significantly more likely to act aggressively themselves, indicating they learned that such behavior was acceptable.
97
What role does reinforcement play in observational learning, according to Bandura?
While reinforcement is not necessary to elicit behavior, it influences it. For instance, in a follow-up study, children showed less aggression if they witnessed the adult model being punished for aggressive actions. This concept is known as vicarious reinforcement, where individuals are affected by observing the reinforcement or punishment of others.
98
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person.
99
Aaron has been using heroin at his friend Luca’s apartment. One night Aaron takes the same dose of heroin when he is home alone, and nearly dies from an overdose. Which phenomenon related to classical conditioning explains why this happened?
conditioned compensatory responses
100
After their relationship ends, Mary is reminded of Sylvia constantly. Over time, however, she stops associating everything she sees with her ex-girlfriend. This demonstrates ______.
extinction
101
Which is a more modern way of thinking about the impact of reinforcers on the likelihood of repeating a specific, rewarded behavior?
a) People are capable of choosing behaviors based on their anticipated outcomes, but lower animals are unable to make such a choice.
b) It is believed that rewards cannot strengthen behaviors unless punishments have also been received in response to the same behaviors..
c) Animals will learn about the consequences of an action and will perform it based on how much they value those consequences..
d) A neutral stimulus can come to elicit a response that was previously associated with a different stimulus..
e) All stimuli have the same capacity to encourage behaviors, whether they are pleasant of unpleasant.
c)
102
How can personal experiences be explained through the three primary learning theories: operant conditioning, classical conditioning and observational learning?
Personal experiences can often be explained by these theories:
- operant conditioning might explain choosing clothes based on compliments received
- classical conditioning could explain selecting a restaurant due to its happy music in commercials
- observational learning might explain consistently being on time for assignments after seeing others punished for being late.
103
What is context?
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs.
For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context.
However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context.”
104
What is preparedness?
The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.
105
What is renewal effect?
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs when the context is changed after extinction. Especially strong when the change of context involves return to the context in which conditioning originally occurred. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
106
What is the term for the brain's response to auditory information changing with experience?
Auditory perceptual learning.
107
What is perceptual learning?
Occurs when aspects of our perception changes as a function of experience.
108
What is implicit learning?
Changes in behavior that occur without the intention to learn something.
109
What is implicit memory?
Changes in behavior that reveal the influence of past experience, even without attempting to use that experience.
"A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent."
110
What does nonassociative learning involve?
A change in behavior due to single repeated exposure to a stimulus.
111
What is habituation?
The process where our response lessens with repeated exposure to a stimulus.
112
What is sensitization?
The process where our response increases with repeated exposure to a stimulus.
113
Give an example of habituation in daily life.
A person living with a grandfather clock may no longer notice its sound over time.
114
Provide an example of sensitization.
A person may become increasingly annoyed by a particularly loud laugh.
115
What is classical conditioning?
: A form of stimulus-stimulus learning where an organism learns that one stimulus predicts another (e.g., an alley cat learning the sound of janitors precedes garbage being dumped).
116
What is operant conditioning?
A form of stimulus-response learning where an organism learns to associate a behavior with a reward (e.g., a dog learning to roll over for a treat).
117
What four groups of factors did Jenkins (1979) classify experiments on learning and memory into?
learners, encoding activities, materials, and retrieval
118
What is working memory?
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.
Working memory is used, for example, to keep track of where we are in the course of a complicated math problem, and what the relevant outcomes of prior steps in that problem are.
Higher scores on working memory measures are predictive of better reasoning skills, reading comprehension, and even better control of attention.
119
What is the relationship between expertise and the ability to learn new information?
More knowledge or expertise enhances our ability to learn new information.
120
What concept explains how experts can remember more information?
Chunking, which allows experts to group multiple pieces of information into fewer, manageable units.
121
How does evaluating words by their parts of speech affect recall and recognition?
It improves recall (more words remembered) but impairs recognition (ability to identify studied words later).
122
What is the term for learning that occurs without the intention to learn?
Incidental learning.
123
Does increasing the spacing between consecutive presentations appear to benefit learning?
Yes
124
What is metacognition, and how can it enhance our learning?
Metacognition refers to the knowledge and skills used to monitor and control one's own learning and memory. To guide learning effectively, one must accurately evaluate progress and choose activities that enhance learning.
It's essential for students to discern what material they have or haven’t mastered; otherwise, studying may be inefficient. Improving metacognition involves reflecting on successes and failures in self-assessment and using frequent testing to monitor progress.
125
What does the principle of transfer-appropriate processing state about encoding activities and test performance?
It suggests that the effectiveness of an encoding activity for learning is determined by the type of test being used.
For instance, reading for meaning improves recall and recognition but may impair performance on tests of pronunciation knowledge.
Memory is better when the test measures the same type of knowledge as the original encoding. Thus, when learning material, it's important to consider the situations in which that knowledge will be needed, such as an emergency responder learning under stress versus a hobbyist learning to use a new camera.
126
How is forgetting viewed in the context of learning, and why is it beneficial?
Forgetting is often seen as the enemy of learning, but it is actually a desirable part of the learning process. The main challenge is accessing knowledge, and forgetting helps eliminate unnecessary information, preventing our minds from becoming cluttered with outdated or irrelevant details.
Retrieval failure can occur when we cannot remember information, but we often access it easily with the right cues. Without the ability to forget, life would be complicated by having to remember names of past acquaintances, teachers, or romantic partners.
127
Why is forgetting considered a prerequisite for more effective learning, and what implications does this have for learning strategies?
Forgetting can enhance learning because it allows for spaced practice opportunities, leading to greater retention.
Difficult encoding activities that seem to slow learning can actually promote superior long-term learning.
When choosing learning activities, it's important to recognize that techniques that produce quick results may not always foster durable, long-term learning.
128
______ is what happens when a consequence makes a behaviour more likely to occur.
Reinforcement
129
______ is what happens when a consequence makes a behaviour LESS likely to occur.
Punishment
130
When the consequence is something desirable happening, this is called ____________
positive reinforcement
131
When the consequence is something undesirable NOT happening, this is called ____________
negative reinforcement
132
When the consequence is something UNdesirable happening, this is called ____________
positive punishment
133
When the consequence is something desirable NOT happening, this is called ____________
negative punishment
134
Which of the following is an example of fixed ratio:
1.
animal learns an association between two stimuli
2.
the organism learns the contingency between a particular behaviour (operant) and the consequence (good or bad).
3.
response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
4.
the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
5.
when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
6.
when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
3. response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
135
Which of the following is an example of a variable interval:
1.
animal learns an association between two stimuli
2.
the organism learns the contingency between a particular behaviour (operant) and the consequence (good or bad).
3.
response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
4.
the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
5.
when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
6.
when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
6.
136
Which of the following is an example of fixed interval:
1.
animal learns an association between two stimuli
2.
the organism learns the contingency between a particular behaviour (operant) and the consequence (good or bad).
3.
response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
4.
the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
5.
when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
6.
when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
4.
137
Which of the following is an example of operant conditioning:
1.
animal learns an association between two stimuli
2.
the organism learns the contingency between a particular behaviour (operant) and the consequence (good or bad).
3.
response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
4.
the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
5.
when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
6.
when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
2.
138
Which of the following is an example of variable ratio:
1.
animal learns an association between two stimuli
2.
the organism learns the contingency between a particular behaviour (operant) and the consequence (good or bad).
3.
response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
4.
the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
5.
when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
6.
when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
5.
139
Which of the following is an example of classical conditioning:
1.
animal learns an association between two stimuli
2.
the organism learns the contingency between a particular behaviour (operant) and the consequence (good or bad).
3.
response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.
4.
the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
5.
when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses
6.
when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed
1.
140
Checking cell phone for text messages when phone is on silent. After different periods of time, you will be reinforced with a message.
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
c) Fixed Interval
d) Variable Interval
e) Fixed Ratio
f) Variable Ratio
d) Variable interval
141
Someone from social media reported “I play a white noise machine at bedtime. Now when I hear the vacuum at work, I get sleepy.” This is likely due to:
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
c) Fixed Interval
d) Variable Interval
e) Fixed Ratio
f) Variable Ratio
a) Classical Conditioning
142
You’re struggling to get down to studying, so you make yourself a deal that after you study for an hour, you will reward yourself by checking Facebook for 10 minutes.
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
c) Fixed Interval
d) Variable Interval
e) Fixed Ratio
f) Variable Ratio
c) Fixed Interval
143
A smart employer pays a teenager after every 5 lawns she mows instead of by the hour as this results in more lawns being mowed each day!
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
c) Fixed Interval
d) Variable Interval
e) Fixed Ratio
f) Variable Ratio
e) Fixed Ratio
144
Your coffee shop has a rewards program, buy 10 coffees and you get one free.
a) Classical Conditioning
b) Operant Conditioning
c) Fixed Interval
d) Variable Interval
e) Fixed Ratio
f) Variable Ratio
e) Fixed Ratio
