Week 17 Readings Flashcards

Question

How do drive states impact modern behavior, and what are the real-world consequences?

Answer 1

Drive states like hunger and sexual arousal, evolved over millions of years, sometimes lead to behavior poorly suited for modern life: - Obesity epidemic: Once beneficial mechanisms for hunger now cause overconsumption when rich, high-calorie foods are easily accessible. - Sexual arousal: Unchecked sexual impulses can lead to harmful decisions, such as politicians sacrificing careers and relationships due to adultery. These mismatches between ancient drive states and modern conveniences contribute to major societal issues, like obesity, drug addiction, and even school massacres.

Answer 2

the present

Answer 3

Emotions play a crucial role in well-being, but the relationship is more complex than simply "positive is good, negative is bad." Three key factors influence how emotions affect well-being: 1. Intensity: Both strong positive and negative emotions can have different effects on well-being. 2. Fluctuation: The degree of emotional fluctuation matters—frequent changes in emotional states may affect health differently than stable emotions. 3. Context: The context in which emotions are experienced also shapes their impact on well-being. While generally beneficial to experience more positive and fewer negative emotions, this is not always the best approach to leading a fulfilling life.

Answer 4

esearchers like Isen, Carver, Fredrickson, and others have explored whether emotions do more than just make us feel good or bad. Modern research shows that emotions impact cognition, behavior, and social interactions. For example, happiness not only feels pleasant but also promotes friendliness and collaboration, enhancing relationships. Over time, these emotional effects contribute to improved mental and physical health.

Answer 5

Recent research highlights three key factors that influence how emotions impact well-being: 1. Intensity: Positive and negative emotions may affect well-being differently at various intensities. 2. Fluctuation: Stable emotions may have different effects from emotions that fluctuate significantly. 3. Context: The context in which an emotion is experienced can determine its impact on well-being. Thus, the answer to "Which emotions should we feel?" depends on these factors.

Answer 6

High levels of positive emotion can lead to risky behaviors like binge eating and drug use, and are also associated with mania. Research shows that the relationship between positive emotion and well-being follows an inverted U-shape: more positive emotion increases well-being up to a point, beyond which it can decrease well-being. This supports Aristotle's idea that moderation is key to a good life.

Answer 7

Yes, too little negative emotion may harm well-being. Research suggests that individuals who avoid negative emotions tend to have worse life satisfaction, lower social support, and poorer academic and physical health. For example, not feeling enough embarrassment after a social mistake can damage relationships. Low negative emotions are also linked to psychopathology, such as blunted sadness in depression and low fear in psychopathy.

Answer 8

Greater emotional fluctuations are generally linked to worse well-being. For example, fluctuating positive emotions can lead to lower well-being and increased depression, while fluctuating negative emotions are associated with depression, borderline personality disorder, and neuroticism. Emotional instability, reflected by large fluctuations, may contribute to these negative outcomes.

Answer 9

The three contexts are: 1. External environment: The setting or situation where the emotion is experienced. 2. Other emotional responses: The physiological and behavioral reactions that accompany the emotion. 3. Other emotions: The presence of other emotions being experienced at the same time.

Answer 10

The context in which an emotion is experienced significantly influences whether it is beneficial. For example, happiness is appropriate and beneficial at a birthday party, but the same level of happiness at a funeral would likely be detrimental to well-being.

Answer 11

Emotions serve different functions and their impact on well-being depends on whether they are appropriate for the situation. For example, fear helps avoid danger, happiness promotes cooperation, and anger energizes people for competition or confrontation. The emotional response that best matches the context can positively influence well-being, while mismatched emotions may be less beneficial.

Answer 12

People who experience emotions fitting the context (e.g., anger when confronting someone) tend to recover better from trauma and depression, and experience greater well-being. Conversely, those who pursue emotions regardless of context, even positive ones like happiness, may experience lower subjective well-being, more depression, greater loneliness, and worse performance (e.g., grades).

Answer 13

The degree to which emotional responses (subjective experience, behavior, physiology, etc.) converge with one another.

Answer 14

Emotion coherence refers to the degree to which different emotional responses—such as behaviors, facial expressions, and physiological activation—occur together when experiencing an emotion. While these responses often align (e.g., feeling excited, smiling, and having a faster heartbeat), they do not always co-occur in all instances or for all individuals. Some people may choose not to express their emotions, resulting in lower coherence.

Answer 15

Yes, emotion coherence—how well behaviors align with emotional experiences—matters for well-being. In a study where participants watched a funny film clip, those whose behaviors (e.g., facial expressions) aligned with their positive emotional experiences showed lower depressive symptoms and higher well-being six months later. This effect was found even after controlling for the overall intensity of positive emotions, suggesting that well-being is enhanced when emotions are expressed congruently with inner feelings.

Answer 16

Emotional coherence predicts well-being because emotions play a crucial role in social communication. When an individual’s emotional expression doesn't match their internal experience, it can confuse others and reduce social connection, which impacts well-being. Research shows that individuals with lower coherence feel less socially connected, contributing to worse well-being. Additionally, people who suppress their emotions tend to have poorer well-being and struggle with social relationships, supporting the idea that authenticity in emotional expression is key to positive social interactions.

Answer 17

Yes, people can experience positive and negative emotions simultaneously. These emotions are independent, not opposites, so individuals can feel happy and sad at the same time, like when winning a prize that’s less than expected. Emotions like schadenfreude or nostalgia show how mixed feelings can coexist. The combination of emotions influences well-being: the other emotions a person feels during an experience can shape the overall impact of the emotion on their well-being.

Answer 18

Yes, experiencing mixed emotions can be beneficial for well-being. For instance, bereaved spouses who expressed both positive and negative emotions during their grief recovered more quickly (Bonanno & Keltner, 1997). Additionally, adults who experienced more mixed emotions over 10 years were found to be physically healthier (Hershfield et al., 2013). The ability to experience positive emotions alongside negative ones can help individuals cope more effectively with stress (Larsen et al., 2003).

Answer 19

Affective neuroscience studies how the brain generates emotional responses, which involve physical changes (e.g., facial expressions), autonomic nervous system activity, subjective feelings, and motivations to act. It seeks to understand how brain structures and chemicals contribute to emotions, providing evidence that supports treatments for emotional disorders like depression.

Answer 20

Human brains are complex and flexible, while nonhuman animals have simpler nervous systems and basic emotional responses. Invasive techniques (e.g., electrode implantation, lesioning) are more easily used in animals, while human neuroscience relies on noninvasive techniques like EEG, fMRI, and studies of brain lesions. Animal research provides useful models, as affective circuits in social mammals, such as rats and monkeys, function similarly to those in humans.

Answer 21

cerebral cortex

Answer 22

The appetitive neuronal system is involved in feelings of desire or the appetite for rewards, often referred to as "wanting," "seeking," or "behavioral activation sensitivity." When aroused, it motivates the organism to search for rewards like food or sex, showing enthusiasm and curiosity. When underaroused, the organism may appear depressed and helpless.

Answer 23

Key brain structures in the appetitive system include the lateral hypothalamus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and frontal cortex. When electrically stimulated, animals show pleasure, indicating these regions' involvement in desire. The neurotransmitter dopamine, produced in mesolimbic and mesocortical circuits, activates these regions, creating excitement and anticipation. These areas are also sensitive to drugs like cocaine and amphetamines, which mimic dopamine's effects.

Answer 24

The left frontal cortex is more active during appetitive emotions such as desire and interest. Research shows that damage to the left frontal cortex can lead to depression, while damage to the right frontal cortex is linked to mania. Studies using EEG and fMRI confirm increased left frontal activation in response to appetitive stimuli, such as sucrose in infants or desirable foods in adults. This activation is also associated with dopamine, highlighting its role in approach-related emotions.

Answer 25

"Liking" refers to the enjoyment of a reward and involves different neural structures from "wanting," which is the desire for the reward. Liking can be measured by behaviors such as licking speed, tongue protrusions, and facial expressions of pleasure, while wanting is shown by the willingness to work hard to obtain a reward. Research on drug abuse illustrates this distinction, as addicts often desire drugs even when they no longer provide pleasure.

Answer 26

A region of the basal forebrain located in front of the preoptic region.

Answer 27

Research shows that the nucleus accumbens and posterior ventral pallidum are involved in "liking" and are sensitive to opioids and endocannabinoids. Stimulation of other areas in the reward system increases "wanting" but does not enhance "liking" and may even reduce enjoyment. This distinction helps explain addiction, as individuals may continue to seek out rewards like cocaine, opiates, or gambling despite no longer feeling pleasure from them due to habituation.

Answer 28

- The nucleus accumbens and the ventral pallidum are involved in liking and are sensitive to opioids and endocannabinoids. - The orbitofrontal cortex is involved in pleasure and activates in response to pleasant stimuli, such as food, money, pleasant smells, and attractive faces. The key difference is that liking relates to enjoyment, while wanting is about desire, and they can be separated in the brain.

Answer 29

The fear circuit extends from the central amygdala to the periaqueductal gray in the midbrain. These areas are sensitive to - glutamate, - corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), - adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), - cholecystokinin (CCK), - and other neuropeptides. Benzodiazepines and other tranquilizers inhibit activation in these regions, reducing fear and anxiety.

Answer 30

The gray matter in the midbrain near the cerebral aqueduct.

Answer 31

The brain uses two pathways to send sensory information to the amygdala for a fear response: - Fast but less accurate pathway – Information travels from the thalamus directly to the amygdala, allowing for a rapid reaction before conscious awareness. - Slower but more accurate pathway – Information first goes from the thalamus to the visual cortex, then to the amygdala, refining the perception. Damage to the amygdala or ventral hippocampus disrupts fear conditioning, impairing the ability to learn fear responses.

Answer 32

Anger is an arousing emotion that motivates approach and attack behaviors. It is triggered by factors such as goal frustration, physical pain, or territorial intrusion. The anger circuit extends from the medial amygdala, through the hypothalamus, to the periaqueductal gray in the midbrain. Anger is linked to appetitive circuits, meaning lack of an expected reward can provoke rage. Left frontal cortical activation increases during anger, supporting its role as an approach-related emotion. - Neurotransmitters involved: Possibly Substance P, testosterone, and arginine-vasopressin. - Inhibitors: Opioids and high doses of antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine) suppress anger responses.

Answer 33

In social animals like humans, attachment involves emotions such as love, warmth, and affection. Maternal nurturing is primarily associated with the dorsal preoptic area and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. These regions overlap with areas involved in sexual desire and respond to neurotransmitters like oxytocin, arginine-vasopressin, and endogenous opioids (endorphins and enkephalins), which promote bonding and caregiving behaviors.

Answer 34

The emotions that motivate nurturing behavior (e.g., maternal care) are distinguishable from those that motivate staying close to an attachment figure in order to receive care and protection (e.g., infant attachment).

Answer 35

The neural attachment system is sensitive to separation, producing emotions like grief, panic, and loneliness. When infant mammals, including humans, are separated from their mothers, they exhibit distress vocalizations (crying). This system is centered in the midbrain periaqueductal gray, close to the pain circuits, suggesting that separation distress evolved from physical pain responses. Other involved regions include the dorsomedial thalamus, ventral septum, dorsal preoptic region, and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, which also overlap with sexual and maternal circuits.

Answer 36

Endogenous opiates, oxytocin, and prolactin reduce separation distress by promoting feelings of comfort and social bonding. - Opiate drugs like morphine and heroin, as well as nicotine, mimic these effects, artificially producing pleasure and gratification, which may contribute to their addictive properties. Panic attacks, which may be an intense form of separation distress, can be relieved by opiates. Additionally, testosterone reduces separation distress by decreasing attachment needs, which may explain why panic attacks are more common in women than in men.

Answer 37

The nucleus accumbens has distinct roles based on its front and back regions: the front is linked to appetitive behaviors (e.g., eating), while the back is involved in fearful defensive behaviors. Experience can modify these responses. - For instance, when rats are exposed to stressful environments, their fear-generating regions expand to the front, filling nearly 90% of the nucleus accumbens shell. - In contrast, when exposed to preferred home environments, the fear regions shrink, and the appetitive regions expand toward the back, filling about 90% of the shell.

Answer 38

Many brain structures, such as the amygdala, are complex and consist of distinct nuclei that perform different tasks. - For example, the amygdala can be divided into 13 nuclei in nonhuman primates, with regions responsible for functions like emotional expression and fear. While fMRI can measure overall brain activity, it cannot precisely isolate the activity of individual nuclei. Additionally, research shows that brain regions like the amygdala are involved in uncertainty and positive emotions, not just fear, making it difficult to map specific emotions to brain regions.

Answer 39

b) nucleus accumbens.

Answer 40

An emotional process; includes moods, subjective feelings, and discrete emotions.