Week 9 Readings Flashcards

Question

Which memory functions are typically spared in amnesia?

Answer 1

Memory functions that do not involve conscious remembering, such as habits, motor skills, cognitive skills, and procedures, are typically spared in amnesia.

Answer 2

Yes, amnesic individuals can execute actions based on prior learning without necessarily having a conscious experience of remembering.

Answer 3

Perceptual priming is a type of memory that enhances processing fluency from prior experiences without conscious recollection. For example, a person can more efficiently perceive a word or face viewed earlier, even if they cannot consciously remember it.

Answer 4

People with amnesia can still demonstrate item-specific fluency (perceptual priming) due to changes in cortical areas, even though they are impaired in consciously recognizing previously seen words or faces.

Answer 5

The hippocampus, in conjunction with multiple cortical regions, is essential for storing memories of daily events.

Answer 6

Memory storage becomes more secure due to interactions between the hippocampus and the cerebral cortex that occur over extended time periods after the initial registration of information.

Answer 7

Conscious memory retrieval depends on the activity of elaborate networks in the cerebral cortex.

Answer 8

Memory retrieval without conscious recollection depends on restricted portions of the cortex or on brain regions outside the cortex.

Answer 9

The temporoparietal junction (TPJ) is responsible for mediating body awareness.

Answer 10

Damage to the TPJ can cause distorted body awareness, such as feeling like your torso is elongated.

Answer 11

Altered activity in the TPJ can produce an out-of-body experience, where you feel like your body is in another location, offering a novel perspective on yourself and the world.

Answer 12

An out-of-body experience can be induced by artificially stimulating the temporoparietal junction.

Answer 13

Similar brain mechanisms that mediate body awareness also generate the normal awareness of the sense of self and the sensation of being inside a body.

Answer 14

The theory suggests that the ability to predict others' behavior is crucial for success in social environments, and the brain has developed mechanisms to model other people's attention and intention.

Answer 15

It proposes that the same brain mechanisms used to model others' attention and intention are adapted to construct a model of one’s own attention and intention, localized in one's own head and perceived as consciousness.

Answer 16

The primary function of consciousness is to allow individuals to predict their own behavior.

Answer 17

The sense of volition, or choosing among multiple possible actions, is closely associated with our subjective feeling of consciousness. When we make a lot of decisions, we may feel especially conscious, but this can lead to feelings of exhaustion as if our mental energy has been drained.

Answer 18

We make decisions in two ways: 1) the conscious mode, where we carefully analyze and scrutinize individual factors, and 2) the unconscious mode, where we make gut decisions based on parallel processing of multiple factors without awareness of individual considerations. The unconscious mode can yield an overall impression of evidence, while the conscious mode may interfere with weighing other factors due to focused attention.

Answer 19

Conscious experiences are often viewed as private and unobservable, leading to the ideal that science relies solely on verifiable observations from a third-person perspective. However, science is a human endeavor that cannot ignore subjective experiences, as a rational scientific account must acknowledge that individuals have personal experiences that influence their understanding of the world.

Answer 20

Observations made by individuals in a way that can be independently confirmed by other individuals so as to lead to general, objective understanding. With respect to consciousness, third-person perspectives make use of behavioral and neural measures related to conscious experiences.

Answer 21

BLINDSIGHT

Answer 22

HIPPOCAMPUS

Answer 23

Consciousness indicates awareness of self, bodily sensations, thoughts, and the environment, while unconsciousness suggests a barrier to awareness. Psychological theories, notably Freud's, suggest that consciousness is more complex; even when awake, many experiences lie outside our conscious awareness. Freud introduced the concept of the "subconscious," proposing that some memories and motivations are not always accessible to our conscious minds.

Answer 24

In 1957, a researcher falsely claimed to have inserted the phrase “Eat Popcorn” into a film frame projected for only 1/24th of a second, allegedly increasing popcorn sales by nearly 60%. This led to regulations on subliminal messaging in the US and bans in countries like Australia and the UK, despite the data being fabricated. The incident highlights the tension between “low awareness” of subtle influences and our conscious awareness, emphasizing the need to understand how different levels of awareness operate separately.

Answer 25

The brain constantly receives and evaluates sensory information, even when overwhelmed by stimuli, as in a crowded party. An example is the "cocktail party effect," where you suddenly become aware of your name being called despite being unaware of other conversations. This illustrates that while we may not consciously notice various stimuli, our brains are processing them more attentively than we realize.

Answer 26

Certain sensory cues can trigger automatic responses akin to reflexes, even if we don't consciously perceive them. For instance, in a study by Öhman and Soares (1994), participants with a fear of snakes exhibited increased sweating when flashed images of snakes at speeds too fast for conscious awareness. This response indicates fear, demonstrating that the brain can react to significant stimuli without the individual's conscious awareness.

Answer 27

A landmark study by Bargh, Chen, and Burrows (1996) demonstrated that participants who solved a word search puzzle with elderly-related words (e.g., "old," "grandma") walked more slowly down the hallway afterward, compared to those with neutral words (e.g., "notebook," "tomato"). This occurred despite participants being unaware of the thematic influence, suggesting that subconscious stimuli can indeed affect behaviors.

Answer 28

Priming is the process of activating certain concepts and associations from memory, which can significantly influence thoughts and behaviors without conscious awareness. For instance, participants who drank from a warm glass behaved more "warmly" toward others compared to those who drank from a cold glass (Williams & Bargh, 2008). These influences demonstrate that subtle cues can affect behavior even when individuals are not consciously aware of the priming effect.

Answer 29

Priming: the activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of and act upon

Answer 30

A computer reaction time test that measures a person’s automatic associations with concepts. For instance, the IAT could be used to measure how quickly a person makes positive or negative evaluations of members of various ethnic groups.

Answer 31

The implicit associations test (IAT) is a research method that measures automatic reactions to stimuli by recording participants' reaction times. It is difficult to fake because it captures responses in milliseconds. For example, when participants categorize Caucasian and Asian faces as "good" or "bad," the IAT can detect differences in processing speed, indicating underlying biases. Faster responses suggest a stronger association with certain groups, while delays reflect more mental effort, revealing non-conscious biases and those participants may wish to suppress (Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz, 1998; Nosek, Banaji & Greenwald, 2002).

Answer 32

High awareness refers to a state of consciousness characterized by effortful attention and careful decision-making. In this state, individuals are highly aware of and focused on specific details in their environment. Examples include actively listening to a funny story on a date, evaluating class schedules, or solving complex math problems. This level of awareness enables individuals to engage thoughtfully with their surroundings, contrasting with the influence of "invisible" factors that operate at lower levels of awareness.

Answer 33

A process that reflects a nonjudgmental, yet attentive, mental state.

Answer 34

Mindfulness is a state of higher consciousness characterized by awareness of one's thoughts and feelings. It involves reflecting on one's responses, such as reconsidering a snap reaction in frustration. This effortful consideration expands conscious awareness and helps individuals recognize the influences on their thoughts. Research indicates that mindfulness can reduce susceptibility to irrelevant biases, such as celebrity endorsements in advertising, and enables individuals to identify when they are relying on stereotypes instead of making fair evaluations (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Gilbert & Hixon, 1991).

Answer 35

Humans shift between low (less attentive) and high (focused) thinking states, supported by distinct neural networks (Raichle, 2015).

Answer 36

In a less attentive state, we are more likely to be influenced by non-conscious stimuli (Chaiken, 1980).

Answer 37

Through higher conscious awareness, individuals can correct against biases from outside influences, as explained by the Flexible Correction Model (Wegener & Petty, 1997).

Answer 38

Flexible Correction Model: the ability for people to correct or change their beliefs and evaluations if they believe these judgments have been biased (e.g., if someone realizes they only thought their day was great because it was sunny, they may revise their evaluation of the day to account for this “biasing” influence of the weather) e.g., If aware of being influenced by a political party, an individual can adjust their perspective on a government policy to evaluate it fairly, based on its own merits rather than party affiliation.

Answer 39

Hypnosis: the state of consciousness whereby a person is highly responsive to the suggestions of another; this state usually involves a dissociation with one’s environment and an intense focus on a single stimulus, which is usually accompanied by a sense of relaxation

Answer 40

Hypnotists induce hypnosis by guiding the person to focus solely on the hypnotist's voice, leading them to forget the context of the setting and respond to suggestions as if they were their own.

Answer 41

Some individuals are naturally more suggestible and "hypnotizable," particularly those who score high in empathy (Wickramasekera II & Szlyk, 2003).

Answer 42

Stage hypnotists often discard volunteers who are less suggestible, focusing on those who are more responsive to hypnosis.

Answer 43

Dissociation: the heightened focus on one stimulus or thought such that many other things around you are ignored; a disconnect between one’s awareness of their environment and the one object the person is focusing on

Answer 44

During hypnosis, dissociation becomes extreme, as a person concentrates intensely on the hypnotist's words and loses perspective on the surrounding world.

Answer 45

Dissociation leads to less effortful and less self-conscious consideration of thoughts and behaviors, causing individuals to follow the hypnotist’s suggestions more readily, similar to low awareness states.

Answer 46

No, to be hypnotized, a person must want to be hypnotized; they cannot be hypnotized against their will (Lynn & Kirsh, 2006). Once hypnotized, individuals will NOT do anything they wouldn't also do while in a more natural state of consciousness (Lynn, Rhue, & Weekes, 1990).

Answer 47

Hypnotherapy: The use of hypnotic techniques such as relaxation and suggestion to help engineer desirable change such as lower pain or quitting smoking.

Answer 48

Trance: a state of consciousness characterized by the experience of “out-of-body possession,” or an acute dissociation between one’s self and the current, physical environment surrounding them.

Answer 49

Trance states often occur in religious ceremonies, where individuals may feel "possessed" by an otherworldly being or force.

Answer 50

People in trance states often report experiences of a "higher consciousness" or communion with a greater power.

Answer 51

Research investigating trance states tends to reject the claim that these experiences constitute an "altered state of consciousness."

Answer 52

Researchers describe both hypnosis and trance states as subjective alterations of consciousness (not as distinct or evolved forms), similar to shifts from standard experiences like deep relaxation. They explain these states through socio-cognitive factors such as imagination, expectation, and interpretation, rather than as distinct forms of consciousness.

Answer 53

Sleep is a unique state of consciousness that lacks full awareness, but the brain remains active.

Answer 54

The hormone melatonin increases at night and is linked to sleepiness.

Answer 55

A Circadian Rhythm is your natural daily rhythm that can be influenced by daylight exposure and your activity schedule.

Answer 56

Jet lag is a disruption of natural sleep rhythms that can occur when changing locations, such as flying from Canada to England. You can overcome jet lag by synchronizing to the local schedule through daylight exposure and forcing yourself to stay awake, even if you feel sleepy.

Answer 57

Sleep is not simply turning off consciousness; it involves complex changes in brain activity, transitioning from beta waves (awake) to alpha waves (relaxed) and through various stages characterized by unique patterns, including REM and NREM sleep.

Answer 58

Beta waves, present when awake, are high frequency, low intensity, and inconsistent, reflecting varied sensory input. Alpha waves occur during relaxation and are less frequent, more consistent, and more intense.

Answer 59

Sleep stages can be classified into four or five distinct stages, with differences in brain activity patterns, particularly between REM (rapid eye movement) and NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep.

Answer 60

Stage 1 is the "falling asleep" stage, marked by theta waves.

Answer 61

tage 2 is considered light sleep, characterized by occasional sleep spindles (high intensity brain waves) and accounts for about 55% of all sleep, thought to be associated with memory processing.

Answer 62

Stage 3 is marked by greater muscle relaxation and the appearance of delta waves, making up about 20-25% of all sleep.

Answer 63

REM sleep is characterized by rapid eye movement and brain activity similar to wakefulness, with less intense brain waves. It accounts for about 20% of all sleep and is associated with dreaming.

Answer 64

Common examples include marijuana, LSD, and MDMA (ecstasy).

Answer 65

The active ingredient in marijuana is THC, which can produce euphoria, distortions in time perception, rambling thoughts, increased hunger, and excessive laughter.

Answer 66

Hallucinogens: substances that, when ingested, alter a person’s perceptions, often by creating hallucinations that are not real or distorting their perceptions of time.

Answer 67

Euphoria: an intense feeling of pleasure, excitement or happiness.

Answer 68

Depressants: a class of drugs that slow down the body’s physiological and mental processes.

Answer 69

Alcohol reduces inhibition, making intoxicated individuals more likely to act in ways they would otherwise avoid, primarily by increasing the neurotransmitter GABA. Alcohol causes loss of balance and coordination by interfering with the coordination of the visual and motor systems of the brain.

Answer 70

Stimulants are substances that speed up the body's physiological and mental processes. Caffeine (found in coffee and tea) and nicotine (the active drug in tobacco products) are two examples.

Answer 71

Cocaine and methamphetamine (also known as "crystal meth" or "ice").

Answer 72

They block the re-uptake of dopamine, causing dopamine to build up in the synapse. Their powerful effects and the intense cravings they create lead to high potential for addiction.

Answer 73

They stimulate strong cravings for more of the drug.

Answer 74

Loss of vision with no damage to the eye, e.g., damage limited to the primary visual cortex, symptom reporting not seeing anything

Week 9 Readings Flashcards

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