Week 15 Readings Flashcards
1
Q
Describe key points about adolescence.
A
- Adolescence is the developmental stage beginning with puberty and ending with the transition to adulthood, typically spanning ages 10–20.
- Historically, adolescence has lengthened as puberty begins earlier (10–11 years for girls and 11–12 years for boys) and adulthood milestones, such as financial independence and parenthood, occur later.
- The average age of puberty onset has decreased since the 19th century by 3–4 months per decade, influenced by factors like better nutrition, obesity, and environmental changes.
- A new developmental stage, emerging adulthood (ages 18–29), has been introduced to capture the prolonged transition from adolescence to adulthood.
- Changes during adolescence occur across physical, cognitive, and social domains, affecting relationships, identity formation, and psychological adjustment.
2
Q
Why are adolescents more prone to engaging in risky or dangerous behaviors?
A
Adolescents are more prone to risky behaviors because, during early adolescence, the brain’s dopaminergic system develops, increasing sensation-seeking and reward motivation.
However, the prefrontal cortex, responsible for self-regulation and risk assessment, matures later.
This imbalance means adolescents are strongly driven by rewards and impulses but lack the full cognitive control to resist or carefully evaluate potential dangers.
3
Q
How do parent–child relationships change during adolescence, and what aspects of parenting become more important?
A
During adolescence, parent–child relationships are renegotiated as adolescents strive for greater independence and autonomy.
Parents’ distal supervision and monitoring become crucial, as adolescents spend more time with peers.
Effective parental monitoring involves setting rules, knowing their adolescents’ friends and activities, and encouraging adolescents to disclose information.
Psychological control, which includes manipulating and intruding into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world, becomes more significant during this stage and is associated with problematic adolescent adjustment.
4
Q
What is psychological control in terms of parenting?
A
Parents’ manipulation of and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways.
5
Q
What is homophily?
A
Adolescents tend to associate with peers who are similar to themselves.
6
Q
What is deviant peer contagion?
A
The spread of problem behaviors within groups of adolescents.
7
Q
What are crowds?
A
Adolescent peer groups characterized by shared reputations or images.
These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors.
8
Q
What is the central issue of adolescent development according to Erikson’s theory?
A
According to Erikson’s theory, identity formation is the central issue of adolescent development. Successfully forming an identity indicates successful development, whereas role confusion signifies failure to meet the developmental task of adolescence.
9
Q
What are the four identity statuses described by Marcia (1966) in adolescent identity formation?
A
Marcia (1966) described four identity statuses:
- Foreclosure: Commitment to an identity without exploration.
- Identity Diffusion: Lack of exploration and commitment to any identity.
- Moratorium: Active exploration of options without making commitments.
- Identity Achievement: Exploration of options followed by making identity commitments.
10
Q
What is foreclosure in Marcia’s identity formation theory?
A
Individuals commit to an identity without exploration of options.
11
Q
What is identity diffusion in Marcia’s identity formation theory?
A
Adolescents neither explore nor commit to any roles or ideologies.
11
Q
What is moratorium in Marcia’s identity formation theory?
A
State in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made identity commitments.
12
Q
What is identity achievement in Marcia’s identity formation theory?
A
Individuals have explored different options and then made commitments.
13
Q
What is Phinney’s (1989) model of ethnic identity development?
A
Phinney’s model of ethnic identity development includes three stages:
- Unexplored Ethnic Identity
- Ethnic Identity Search
- Achieved Ethnic Identity
14
Q
What is the difference between early starters and late starters in Patterson’s early versus late starter model of antisocial behavior?
A
In Patterson’s model, early starters exhibit antisocial behavior beginning in childhood and are at greater risk for persistent antisocial behavior into adulthood.
Late starters begin antisocial behavior in adolescence, often due to poor parental monitoring and increased involvement with deviant peers. Late starters are more likely to desist from antisocial behavior when environmental changes make other options more appealing.
15
Q
What does Moffitt’s life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model propose about the development of antisocial behavior?
A
Moffitt’s model distinguishes two patterns of antisocial behavior:
Life-course persistent: Begins in childhood and often persists into adulthood.
Adolescent-limited: Begins in adolescence, driven by a “maturity gap” between adolescents’ dependence on adults and their desire for autonomy. Adolescent-limited behavior typically decreases as legitimate adult roles and privileges become available.
16
Q
What factors contribute to the development of antisocial behavior in late starters, according to Patterson’s model?
A
In late starters, poor parental monitoring and supervision contribute to increased involvement with deviant peers. These factors promote the development of antisocial behavior during adolescence, which often decreases when environmental changes provide alternative, appealing options.
17
Q
What is the “maturity gap” described in Moffitt’s model, and how does it relate to adolescent-limited antisocial behavior?
A
The “maturity gap” refers to the discrepancy between adolescents’ dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate independence.
This gap motivates adolescents to engage in antisocial behavior as a way to assert autonomy. As they gain legitimate adult roles and privileges, the incentives for antisocial behavior diminish, leading to desistance.
18
Q
How do anxiety and depression impact adolescents’ social relationships, and why are girls more vulnerable?
A
Adolescents with anxiety or depression often create stress in their relationships by poorly resolving conflicts, seeking excessive reassurance, and selecting maladaptive social contexts (e.g., befriending other depressed youths and co-rumination).
This process worsens negative emotions and stress.
Girls are more vulnerable because they have relationship-oriented goals focused on intimacy and social approval, making disruptions in relationships particularly impactful.
These social difficulties exacerbate anxiety and depression, leading to a cycle that maintains these issues over time.
19
Q
What 3 factors predict academic achievement in adolescence?
A
Academic achievement during adolescence is influenced by interpersonal factors (e.g., parental engagement), intrapersonal factors (e.g., intrinsic motivation), and institutional factors (e.g., school quality).
20
Q
What is differential susceptibility?
A
Genetic factors that make individuals more or less responsive to environmental experiences.
21
Q
How do environmental and individual factors contribute to the diversity of adolescent development?
A
Adolescent development varies due to both universal biological and cognitive changes and environmental factors.
- Circumstances such as cultural norms, laws, and values shape experiences, like opportunities for risk-taking and family dynamics.
- Gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality also influence behavior and how others respond to adolescents. For example, early puberty can have worse outcomes for girls, and discrimination may create unique challenges for ethnic or sexual minorities.
- Additionally, genetic variations and gene-environment interactions can make adolescents more or less susceptible to certain environmental factors, contributing further to developmental diversity.
22
Q
One major cognitive change in adolescence is a shift toward ______thinking.
A
abstract
23
Q
Paul’s friends praised him when he stole some cigarettes. After, some of his friends began to shoplift also. What is the name for this phenomenon?
juvenile delinquency.
deviant peer contagion.
differential susceptibility.
peer pressure.
identity foreclosure
A
deviant peer contagion
24
Last year, Johnny was an athlete at school. This year, he has tried fitting in with the theater kids. He can’t decide what identity feels right to him and is experiencing ______.
identity diffusion.
identity moratorium.
identity achievement.
identity trials.
identity foreclosure
moratorium
25
According to Erik Erickson, the most important conflict in adolescence involves what?
physical pubertal changes.
romantic involvement.
identity formation.
parent-child relationships
identity formation
26
Genetic factors make individuals more or less responsive to environmental influences. This phenomenon is known as ______.
differential susceptibility
27
Fifteen-year-old Charlie is prone to risky behavior because his dopaminergic system has developed to reward him, but his ______ is still immature.
prefrontal cortex
28
Adolescents tend to associate with peers who are similar to themselves. What is the name for this condition?
homophily
29
What are the five features that make emerging adulthood distinct, and how does it vary across different regions?
Emerging adulthood, typically lasting from ages 18 to 25, is characterized by five key features:
1. Identity explorations: Young adults actively explore different possibilities for their identity.
2. Instability: This period involves frequent changes in relationships, work, and living situations.
3. Self-focus: Emerging adults focus on personal development and independence.
4. Feeling in-between: They feel neither fully adolescent nor fully adult.
5. Sense of broad possibilities: There is a sense of unlimited potential for the future.
Emerging adulthood is most common in industrialized countries, where education and delayed marriage and parenthood are common. It lasts longest in Europe, while in Asian countries, it is more balanced by family obligations and conservative views on sexuality. In non-industrialized countries, it is typically experienced by the middle class but may grow as these countries become more affluent.
30
What is emerging adulthood?
A new life stage extending from approximately ages 18 to 25, during which the foundation of an adult life is gradually constructed in love and work.
Primary features include identity explorations, instability, focus on self-development, feeling incompletely adult, and a broad sense of possibilities.
31
Why is emerging adulthood considered the age of identity explorations, and how does it relate to Erikson's theory?
Emerging adulthood is considered the age of identity explorations because individuals explore various possibilities in love and work, leading to enduring choices. This exploration helps them develop a clearer sense of who they are, their capabilities, beliefs, values, and how they fit into society.
While Erikson (1950) originally proposed that identity formation is primarily an adolescent issue, more recent research (Côté, 2006) suggests that identity explorations actually take place mainly during emerging adulthood.
32
How does emerging adulthood reflect instability, and what is a common example of this?
Emerging adulthood is characterized by instability as individuals explore different possibilities in love, work, and education.
A common example of this instability is the frequent changes in residence, with many emerging adults moving multiple times—whether to attend college, live independently, cohabit with a partner, or relocate for work or study.
- In fact, residential changes are most frequent during ages 18 to 29 in American society. In some countries, like southern Europe, emerging adults may stay in their parents' home, but still experience instability in education, work, and relationships.
33
Why is emerging adulthood considered a self-focused age, and what does this self-focus involve?
Emerging adulthood is considered a self-focused age because individuals are transitioning between adolescence, where they rely on their parents, and adulthood, where they make long-term commitments in love and work.
During this time, emerging adults focus on themselves to develop the knowledge, skills, and self-understanding necessary for adult life.
- This includes making independent decisions, such as what to eat or whether to get married. Even in cultures where emerging adults live with their parents, they establish more independence than they had during adolescence.
34
Why is emerging adulthood considered an age of feeling "in-between," and how is this feeling reflected across cultures?
Emerging adulthood is considered an age of feeling "in-between" because individuals do not fully identify as adolescents or as adults.
Most emerging adults report feeling that they are in a transitional period, responding with "in some ways yes, in some ways no" when asked if they feel they have reached adulthood. This feeling persists until their late twenties or early thirties.
This "in-between" experience has been found across various cultures, including Argentina, Austria, Israel, the Czech Republic, and China, indicating that it is a widespread feature of emerging adulthood.
35
Why is emerging adulthood considered the age of possibilities, and how is optimism reflected in this stage of life?
Emerging adulthood is considered the age of possibilities because individuals feel that many different futures remain open to them, and little about their life direction has been decided.
This stage is marked by high hopes and great expectations, as most dreams have not yet been tested by life's challenges.
In a national survey of 18- to 24-year-olds in the U.S., 89% agreed with the statement, "I am confident that one day I will get to where I want to be in life" (Arnett & Schwab, 2012).
This optimism is also observed in other countries, reflecting a widespread sense of potential and confidence during emerging adulthood.
36
What are OECD countries?
Members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, comprised of the world’s wealthiest countries.
Also called industrialized countries
37
How does the experience of emerging adulthood differ in Asian cultures compared to Europe, and what role does collectivism play in this difference?
In Asian cultures, the experience of emerging adulthood is shaped by a legacy of collectivism and family obligations, which contrasts with the individualism prevalent in Europe.
While emerging adults in both regions engage in identity exploration and self-development, Asian emerging adults do so within the constraints of their obligations to their parents, especially regarding financial support.
For example, in contrast to their American and European counterparts, who prioritize financial independence as a marker of adulthood, Asian emerging adults often emphasize the importance of being able to support their parents financially. This sense of family duty can limit the extent of their identity exploration, as they are more likely to follow their parents' wishes regarding education, career, and lifestyle choices.
38
How does the experience of sexuality differ between Western and Asian emerging adults?
Western cultures:
- Premarital sex and cohabitation are normative by late teens.
- Many experience cohabiting partnerships before marriage.
- In the U.S., Canada, northern and eastern Europe, premarital sex and cohabitation are widely accepted.
- In southern Europe, cohabitation is taboo, but premarital sex is tolerated during emerging adulthood.
Asian cultures:
- Premarital sex and cohabitation are rare and forbidden.
- Dating is discouraged until late twenties, expected to lead to marriage.
- Only about 1/5 in Japan and South Korea report premarital sex by age 20, compared to 3/4 in the U.S. and Europe.
39
How does emerging adulthood differ between industrialized and non-industrialized countries?
Industrialized countries:
- Emerging adulthood is normative.
- Delay in marriage and parenthood.
- Increasing proportion of young people pursue post-secondary education.
Non-industrialized countries:
- Emerging adulthood is less common.
- Majority marry around age 20 and finish education by late teens.
- Lower enrollment rates in tertiary education compared to industrialized countries.
40
How does emerging adulthood differ between wealthier and poorer segments of society in non-industrialized countries?
Wealthier segment (urban middle class):
- Emerging adulthood exists, marked by prolonged education, delayed marriage, and exploration of identity.
Poorer segment (rural and urban poor):
- Emerging adulthood is rare.
- Many enter adult-like work early, with early marriage and parenthood.
- Adolescence, as a distinct phase, is often absent.
Global trend:
- As globalization and economic development increase, the middle class expands, and more young people will experience emerging adulthood.
- By the end of the 21st century, emerging adulthood may become normative worldwide.
41
What are the pros and cons of the extended transition to adulthood through emerging adulthood?
Cons:
- Extended dependency: Young people depend on parents longer than before.
- Delayed contribution: They take longer to become full members of society.
- Struggles with choices: Many face difficulties in sorting opportunities, leading to anxiety and depression, despite overall optimism.
Pros:
- Better preparation: Delaying adult responsibilities allows more time for education and training, enhancing readiness for today’s economy.
- Mature decision-making: Delaying critical life choices in love and work to the late twenties or early thirties allows for more mature judgment, increasing the likelihood of successful long-term decisions.
42
What can societies do to help emerging adults successfully transition to adulthood?
Expand tertiary education opportunities:
- OECD countries' education systems were built for a different economy and have not expanded sufficiently to meet the needs of all emerging adults.
- The cost of tertiary education, especially in places like the U.S., has risen and is often unaffordable for many.
- Non-industrialized countries have even smaller tertiary education systems.
Recommendation:
Make tertiary education accessible to all emerging adults, ideally free of charge, as this is a critical investment in preparing young people for future economies.
43
Presently, in the US, the average person has how many jobs between ages 20 and 29?
a) 2
b) 0
c) 14
d) 7
e) 4
d) 7
44
Currently, what is the median age of marriage for women in the US?
a) 35
b) 22
c) 27
d) 20
e) 15
c) 27
45
In non-industrialized countries, the ______ segment of the population rarely experiences emerging adulthood.
upper income.
middle income.
rural.
low income.
urban.
low income
46
Darius is a college senior who is thinking about what might come next for him after graduation. He feels there are many options available and that he will achieve want he wants in his life, despite the fact that he has yet to hold a full-time position. What part of emerging adulthood best describes what Darius is experiencing?
a) instability.
b) feeling in-between.
c) the age of possibilities.
d) self-focused.
e) identity exploration.
c) the age of possibilities.
47
How is aging understood in contemporary research?
Complex and lifelong process: Aging is influenced by biogenetic and psychological processes throughout life, not just after age 65 or among the very old.
Cumulative impact: Functioning in each life period is shaped by earlier experiences and influences future change.
Contextual aging: Aging occurs in specific social and historical contexts, making it difficult to define the exact start of middle-age or old age.
Psychosocial aspects: Contemporary research explores cognitive aging, changes in personality, self-related beliefs, social relationships, and subjective well-being, all of which are linked to health and longevity.
48
What is heterogeneity?
Inter-individual and subgroup differences in level and rate of change over time.
49
What are life course theories?
Theory of development that highlights the effects of social expectations of age-related life events and social roles; additionally considers the lifelong cumulative effects of membership in specific cohorts and sociocultural subgroups and exposure to historical events.
50
What are life span theories?
Theory of development that emphasizes the patterning of lifelong within- and between-person differences in the shape, level, and rate of change trajectories.
51
What are intra- and inter-individual differences?
Different patterns of development observed within an individual (intra-) or between individuals (inter-).
52
What are cross-sectional studies?
Research method that provides information about age group differences; age differences are confounded with cohort differences and effects related to history and time of study.
53
What factors contribute to heterogeneity in older adults?
Biogenetic and psychological aging: Differences in aging rates across individuals.
Sociocultural context: People’s backgrounds, history, and experiences influence aging.
Individual differences: Substantial variation in cognitive functioning, personality, relationships, lifestyle, beliefs, and satisfaction with life.
54
How do life course theories explain aging?
Social expectations and life events: Focus on normative timing of life events and social roles (e.g., parenthood, retirement).
Cohort and sociocultural subgroup effects: Effects of belonging to specific generations, races, genders, or socioeconomic groups.
Historical events: Impact of experiences such as war, revolution, or natural disasters.
55
What distinguishes life span theories from life course theories?
Focus on individual processes: Life span theories emphasize processes like the aging brain and intra- and inter-individual differences.
Patterns of aging: Examines patterns of gain, maintenance, and loss in aging, as well as the level and rate of change.
56
How do longitudinal and cross-sectional studies differ in aging research?
Longitudinal studies: Examine changes over time, assessing the effects of biogenetic, life history, social, and personal factors.
Cross-sectional studies: Provide information on age-group differences but are affected by cohort, time of study, and historical context.
57
What is the psychometric approach?
Approach to studying intelligence that examines performance on tests of intellectual functioning.
58
What is fluid intellegence?
Type of intelligence that relies on the ability to use information processing resources to reason logically and solve novel problems.
59
What is crystallized intelligence?
Type of intellectual ability that relies on the application of knowledge, experience, and learned information.
60
What are the two categories of intelligence identified in the psychometric approach to aging?
Fluid intelligence: Involves information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, spatial ability, memory, and reaction time.
Crystallized intelligence: Draws upon experience and knowledge, including abilities like vocabulary, solving number problems, and understanding texts.
61
What cognitive abilities are associated with fluid intelligence?
Logical reasoning
Memory (e.g., remembering lists)
Spatial ability
Reaction time
62
What cognitive abilities are associated with crystallized intelligence?
Vocabulary tests
Solving number problems
Understanding texts
63
What cognitive tasks do older adults tend to perform poorer on compared to young adults?
Older adults tend to perform poorer on memory tasks involving recall of information, where they must retrieve previously learned information without supportive cues (e.g., recalling names, contextual details).
64
What cognitive decline is commonly observed with age?
- Working memory becomes less efficient, reducing the ability to simultaneously store and use information.
- Processing speed decreases, which may affect performance on various cognitive tasks.
- Inhibitory functioning declines, affecting the ability to focus on relevant information and suppress irrelevant details.
- Sensory decline, such as reduced hearing and vision, may contribute to cognitive deficits.
65
How do sensory declines impact cognition in older adults?
Declines in hearing and vision with age are proposed to explain age differences in various cognitive abilities, as sensory information plays a key role in processing and performance on cognitive tasks.
66
What is one possible explanation for age differences in performance on cognitive tasks?
Slower processing speed and decreased working memory efficiency may explain many age differences in cognitive performance, making it harder for older adults to complete tasks that require self-initiated, effortful processing.
67
In what situations do older adults show fewer age-related cognitive differences?
Older adults show fewer age-related differences in recognition memory tasks or when they can draw upon acquired knowledge or experience, such as vocabulary or word knowledge tests.
68
How do older adults compensate for cognitive declines in tasks like typing?
How do older chess experts perform compared to younger players?
Older typists compensate for declines in speed by looking further ahead at the printed text, allowing them to maintain performance despite slower typing speed.
Older chess experts tend to focus on a smaller set of possible moves, leading to greater cognitive efficiency compared to younger players.
69
How does accrued knowledge benefit older adults in everyday tasks?
Older adults use accrued knowledge (e.g., grocery prices) to make better decisions than younger adults, leveraging their experience for improved decision-making in familiar contexts.
70
Recognition vs recall?
Recognition: Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information with the assistance of cues.
Recall: Type of memory task where individuals are asked to remember previously learned information without the help of external cues.
71
What is inhibitory functioning?
Ability to focus on a subset of information while suppressing attention to less relevant information.
72
How do cognitive declines affect older adults' driving and problem-solving abilities?
Cognitive declines, such as slower reaction times and attention processes, can affect older adults' driving abilities, especially in high-stress situations.
However, older adults often use more effective problem-solving strategies in social and emotional contexts, relying on accumulated life experience to navigate issues more efficiently than younger adults.
73
How do cognitive changes impact older adults' performance in work settings?
Older adults typically compensate for cognitive declines by developing more efficient strategies and relying on their expertise, leading to effective performance at work despite age-related changes in cognition.
74
What are the "Big Five" personality traits, and how do they change with age?
The Big Five personality traits are:
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism
- Conscientiousness
- Agreeableness
- Openness to new experience
Changes with age:
- Neuroticism and openness generally decrease.
- Conscientiousness tends to increase.
75
How does personality change throughout adulthood?
Personality can change throughout adulthood:
- Longitudinal studies show average changes in traits and individual variability due to life events (e.g., divorce, illness).
- Some people experience stable personalities, while others do not.
76
Why is conscientiousness significant in adulthood?
Conscientiousness is significant because it predicts:
- Job success
- Health
- Longevity
77
What are autobiographical narratives?
A qualitative research method used to understand characteristics and life themes that an individual considers to uniquely distinguish him- or herself from others.
78
What are the "Big Five" personality traits, and how do they change during adulthood?
The "Big Five" traits are extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to new experience. Longitudinal studies show that neuroticism and openness decrease with age, while conscientiousness increases.
79
Does personality remain stable throughout adulthood, and what factors influence changes?
While some people’s personalities are stable over time, others experience changes influenced by idiosyncratic life events such as divorce or illness.
80
What does contemporary research reveal about personality stability and change compared to earlier views?
Earlier views suggested personality was stable in adulthood, but contemporary research demonstrates variability, with both stability and significant changes depending on the individual.
81
How does conscientiousness predict life outcomes?
Conscientiousness is a strong predictor of job success, health, and longevity.
82
Why is longitudinal research important in understanding adult personality?
Longitudinal research identifies average trends in personality changes, individual differences, and the role of life events, supported by studies such as Lucas & Donnellan (2011) and Roberts & Mroczek (2008).
83
How do theories about the aging self differ from the relative stability of personality traits?
Unlike the stability of personality traits, the aging self involves changes in self-related knowledge, beliefs, and autobiographical narratives, which evolve over time to reflect life experiences and transitions.
84
How do self-descriptions change with age, and what purposes do they serve?
Self-descriptions evolve with age—focusing on themes like generativity and health in midlife and reflecting on life in old age. These narratives enhance self-esteem, guide behavior, and provide a sense of identity.
85
What is the role of life review in advanced old age?
Life review helps individuals reflect on their life experiences, confront challenges, and find meaning and acceptance in their later years.
86
How do self-related beliefs and narratives guide behavior and self-esteem?
Self-descriptions enhance self-esteem and guide behavior by shaping an individual’s sense of identity and providing coherence to their life story.
87
What is subjective age?
A multidimensional construct that indicates how old (or young) a person feels and into which age group a person categorizes him- or herself
88
What is age identity?
How old or young people feel compared to their chronological age; after early adulthood, most people feel younger than their chronological age.
89
What are self-perceptions of aging?
An individual’s perceptions of their own aging process; positive perceptions of aging have been shown to be associated with greater longevity and health.
90
What is Antonucci's Convoy Model of Social Relations?
Theory that proposes that the frequency, types, and reciprocity of social exchanges change with age. These social exchanges impact the health and well-being of the givers and receivers in the convoy.
91
What is Carstensen's Socioemotional Selectivity Theory?
Theory proposed to explain the reduction of social partners in older adulthood; posits that older adults focus on meeting emotional over information-gathering goals, and adaptively select social partners who meet this need.
92
What does Antonucci’s Convoy Model of Social Relations suggest about social connections?
The Convoy Model suggests that social connections are maintained through exchanges of social support (e.g., tangible and emotional), which change in frequency, type, and reciprocity with age and in response to need, impacting the health and well-being of both givers and receivers.
93
How does the perception of support differ from actual support in social relationships?
he perception that support is available if needed is often more critical than the actual exchange of support, influencing well-being and resilience.
94
What is Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, and how does it relate to aging?
he theory proposes that as people age, their motivational goals shift from information gathering to emotion regulation. Older adults prioritize emotionally meaningful relationships, reduce social networks, and avoid negative interactions to enhance positive affect.
95
How does aging influence social interactions in close relationships, such as marriages?
Older marriages are characterized by more positive and fewer negative interactions, with older partners displaying greater affection and reduced conflict compared to middle-aged partners.
96
What similar selective processes are observed in young adults under certain conditions?
When young adults face time-limited interactions (e.g., impending geographical separations), they exhibit similar selective processes, focusing on emotionally close relationships and avoiding negative interactions.
97
Across the life span, the _________ tie, for example, is characterized by a paradox of solidarity, conflict, and ambivalence
Across the life span, the parent-child tie, for example, is characterized by a paradox of solidarity, conflict, and ambivalence
98
What is global subjective well-being? What factors may contribute to this?
Individuals’ perceptions of and satisfaction with their lives as a whole.
Age, health, personality, social support, and life experiences can influence it.
It is highest in early and later adulthood and lowest in midlife according to research.
99
What is the hedonic treadmill, and how does it relate to well-being? How has recent research challenged the hedonic treadmill concept?
The hedonic treadmill suggests that life events, such as marriage or divorce, temporarily affect well-being, but individuals quickly adapt and return to a neutral baseline.
Recent longitudinal studies show that well-being does not always return to baseline after major life events. Events like unemployment can have lasting negative effects on well-being.
100
What is hedonic well-being?
Component of well-being that refers to emotional experiences, often including measures of positive (e.g., happiness, contentment) and negative affect (e.g., stress, sadness).
101
How does positive affect change across the adult life span?
How does negative affect, such as stress, anger, and sadness, change with age?
Positive affect, such as happiness and enjoyment, is highest in young and older adulthood, following a pattern similar to global well-being.
Stress and anger decrease with age, while sadness is lowest in early and later adulthood compared to midlife.
102
What factors contribute to declines in well-being in late older adulthood?
Declines in global well-being and positive affect during late older adulthood are often associated with health-related losses.
103
What are the six core dimensions of psychological well-being in Ryff’s model?
The six dimensions are environmental mastery, autonomy, personal growth, purpose in life, positive relations with others, and self-acceptance.
Older adults report higher environmental mastery and autonomy, lower personal growth and purpose in life, and similar levels of positive relations with others.
104
What factors influence human life span, and what role do genes play?
Genes account for only 25% of the variance in human life spans, with environmental and behavioral factors, such as physical activity and lifestyle, contributing significantly to longevity.
105
What is Rowe and Kahn's model of successful aging?
Successful aging involves:
1. Avoiding disease, disability, and risk factors like smoking or obesity.
2. Maintaining high physical and cognitive functioning.
3. Actively engaging in social and productive activities.
106
Katrina has noticed that her mother seems less able to focus on answering a specific question while simultaneously suppressing attention to less relevant information. This skill, called ______, normally declines as people age.
inhibitory functioning
107
Which personality trait has been found to predict important life outcomes, such as job success, health, and longevity?
conscientiousness
108
Bess is 76 years old, and finds that she is happier with just a few close friends. Bess’s behavior is consistent with Carstensen’s ______ theory.
Socioemotional selectivity
109
Rowe and Kahn (1997) defined three criteria for successful aging. They included which of the following?
a) successful parenting and/or grandparenting experiences.
b) financial stability in the retirement years.
c) reconciliation related to past conflicts.
d) active engagement in social and productive activities.
e) having a solid sense of religious direction
d)
110
What does adolescence involve (cognitive changes)
concrete --> abstract thinking
increased capacity for attention, memory, processing speed, metacognition
increase in sensation seeking during adolescence (prefrontal cortex development comes later in adolescence, facilitating risk-taking in middle adolescence)
111
