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Photosynthesis Flashcards

1
Q

Two orders

A
  1. More orderly
  2. Less orderly
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2
Q
  • highly ordered, highly structured system
  • accomplished by putting energy into a living system
A

more orderly

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3
Q
  • increase of entropy
  • accomplished through energy transfers
A

less orderly

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4
Q

measure of randomness or disorder in a system

A

entropy

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5
Q

Two (2) methods sunlight maintains the state of low entropy

A
  1. Directly
  2. Indirectly
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6
Q

Method sunlight maintains the state of low entropy:
Directly

A

photosynthesis

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7
Q

Methods sunlight maintains the state of low entropy:
Indirectly

A

respiration

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8
Q

basis for a major, fundamental distinction in the types of organisms

A
  • photosynthesis
  • respiration
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9
Q

organisms that gather energy directly from light and use it to assimilate small inorganic molecules into their own tissues

A

Photoautotrophs

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10
Q

Ex. of photoautotrophs

A
  • all green plants
  • cyanobacteria
  • few bacteria capable of photosynthesis
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11
Q

organisms take in organic molecules and respire them, obtaining energy available in them

A

Heterotrophs

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12
Q

Ex. of heterotrophs

A
  • all animals
  • completely parasitic plants
  • fungi
  • non-photosynthetic prokaryotes
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13
Q

plants that are not capable of photosynthesis and obtain all nutrients and water from a host plant

A

Holoparasitic plants

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14
Q

specialized, modified root of parasitic plants that penetrates into a host plant and functions to acquire necessary nutrients from the host plant they attached themselves to

A

haustorial root

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15
Q

Ex. of holoparasites

A

Cuscuta

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16
Q

Difference between Photoautotrophs and Heterotrophs:
Source of energy

A

Photoautotrophs:
sunlight

Heterotrophs:
food: carbohydrates, proteins, fats

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17
Q

Difference between Photoautotrophs and Heterotrophs:
Source of building material

A

Photoautotrophs:
carbon dioxide

Heterotrophs:
food

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18
Q

Difference between Photoautotrophs and Heterotrophs:
Organisms

A

Photoautotrophs:
1. photosynthetic plants and bacteria
2. algae
3. cyanobacteria

Heterotrophs:
1. animals
2. protozoa
3. non-photosynthetic parts of ordinary plants
4. completely parasitic plants
5. most bacteria
6. fungi

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19
Q

process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen and energy in the form of sugar

A

Photosynthesis

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20
Q

what drives endergonic reactions in photosynthesis

A

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

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21
Q

carries new bonding orbitals filled by electrons to the reaction

A

NADPH

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22
Q

Energy enters the biological world through _____

A

photosynthesis

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23
Q

two major pigments involved in photosynthesis

A
  • Chlorophyll A
  • Chlorophyll B
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24
Q

absorbs violet and orange light the most.

A

chlorophyll a

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25
Q

absorbs mostly blue and yellow light.

A

chlorophyll b

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26
Q

Chlorophyll a and b also absorb light of other wavelengths with ___ intensity.

A

less

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27
Q

Cons of energy carriers

A
  • large molecules
  • not very mobile
  • too energetic
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28
Q

Three (3) methods of synthesizing ATP

A
  1. Photophosphorylation
  2. Substrate-level phosphorylation
  3. Oxidative phosphorylation
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29
Q

Energy source:
Photophosphorylation

A

sunlight

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30
Q

Energy source:
Substrate-level photophosphorylation

A

reactions not involving oxygen

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31
Q

Energy source:
Oxidative photophosphorylation

A

oxidations with oxygens

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32
Q

Site:
Photophosphorylation

A

chloroplast

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33
Q

Site:
Substrate-level photophosphorylation

A

cytosol

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34
Q

Site:
Oxidative photophosphorylation

A

mitochondria

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35
Q

potential or power of any substance to reduce another substance that can be either by addition or removal of hydrogen or by loss or gain of electrons

A

reducing power

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36
Q
  • chemical reaction in which electrons are transferred between two reactants participating in it
  • transfer of electrons can be identified by observing the changes in the oxidation states of the reacting species
A

oxidation-reduction reactions

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37
Q

an atom loses electrons (e-), increasing positive charge

A

oxidation

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38
Q

an atom gains an electron (e-), reducing its positive charge

A

reduction

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39
Q

When the oxidation state increases, means electrons are removed, thus, the substance is ____

A

oxidized

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40
Q

substance that is being oxidized is called ____

A

reducing agent

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41
Q

When the oxidation state decreases, means electrons are added, thus the substance is ____

A

reduced

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42
Q

substance that is being reduced is called the ____

A

oxidizing agent

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43
Q

The oxidation state of an atom in any pure element is ____

A

0 (zero)

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44
Q

The oxidation state of hydrogen is ____ when in a regular compound

A

+1

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45
Q

The oxidation state of hydrogen is ____ when bonded to a metal

A

-1

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46
Q

Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of ____

A

-2

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47
Q

most highly oxidized forms of carbon and hydrogen

A
  • carbon dioxide
  • water
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48
Q

Compounds in the environment are predominantly in the ____ _____ because of our oxygen-rich atmosphere

A

oxidized state

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49
Q

Most compounds in organisms are in the ____ ____

A

reduced state

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50
Q

oxidize the material they interact with

A

oxidizing agents

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51
Q

Ex. of oxidizing agents

A
  • NAD+
  • NADP+
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52
Q

Two strong reducing agents

A
  • NADH
  • NADPH
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53
Q

have a powerful tendency to place electron onto other molecules, reducing those molecules and becoming oxidized themselves

A

reducing agents

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54
Q

tendency to accept or donate electrons varies greatly

A

redox potential

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55
Q

involved in an oxidation reaction of cellular respiration

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+)

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56
Q

involved in an oxidation reaction of photosynthesis

A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP+)

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57
Q

What is formed after NAD+ and NADP+ take electrons away from other molecules (gaining of electrons)

A
  • NADH
  • NADPH
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58
Q

proteins that contain heme as their prosthetic group

A

Cytochromes

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59
Q

Biological function of cytochromes

A

electron transport

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60
Q

Cytochromes carries electrons and cycles between the ___ and ___ oxidation states

A
  • +2
  • +3
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61
Q

Where are cytochromes localized

A

compartment between the inner and outer mitochondrial membrane

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62
Q

Other electron carriers

A
  1. Cytochromes
  2. Plastoquinone
  3. Plastocyanin
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63
Q
  • associated with Photosystem II
  • mobile electron carrier through the membrane of the thylakoid
  • hydrophobic; allows them to dissolve easily into the lipid component of chloroplast membrane
A

Plastoquinone

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64
Q

Plastoquinone is reduced; accepts two protons (H+) from the stromal matrix of the chloroplast, coupled to two electrons (e-) from photosystem II, forming ____

A

plastoquinol

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65
Q

Plastoquinone being hydrophobic allows them to ___ ___ into the lipid component of ___ ___

A
  • dissolve easily
  • chloroplast membrane
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66
Q
  • a copper-containing protein that mediates electron-transfer
  • acts as a redox protein in oxygenic photosynthesis,
  • carry electrons from cytochrome f to a protein in photosystem I
A

Plastocyanin

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67
Q

Loosely associated with chloroplast membranes Plastocyanin transport route involves two steps:

A
  1. import into the chloroplasts
  2. subsequent routing over the thylakoid membrane into the lumen
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68
Q

Why are carbon dioxide and water used?

A
  • abundant and cheap
  • diffuse into plants automatically
  • stable and contain little chemical energy
  • nontoxic
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69
Q

Carbon atom in carbon dioxide is at the ____ oxidation state during photosynthesis

A

+4

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70
Q

Carbon atoms in carbohydrate are at ___

A

+0

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71
Q

Electron source

A

water

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72
Q

energy source

A

light

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73
Q

Light-dependent reactions

A

thylakoid reactions

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74
Q

process that creates the intermediates ATP and NADPH

A

photosynthesis

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75
Q

stroma reactions

A

dark reactions

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76
Q

ATP and NADPH interact with carbon dioxide and actually produce ____

A

carbohydrate

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77
Q

one small segment of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum (gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves, in addition to visible light.)

A

Light

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78
Q

What are included in the electromagnetic radiation spectrum

A
  1. gamma rays
  2. x-rays
  3. ultraviolet light
  4. visible light
  5. infrared light
  6. microwaves
  7. radio waves
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79
Q
  • energy that comes from a source and travels through space at the speed of light
  • has an electric field and a magnetic field associated with it, and has wave-like properties
  • also called “electromagnetic waves”
A

Radiation

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80
Q

Radiation can be thought of and treated physically either:

A
  1. set of particles- Quanta also called Photon
  2. set of waves
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81
Q

have relatively large amounts of energy in each quantum

A

short wavelengths

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82
Q

short wavelengths

A
  • cosmic rays
  • gamma rays
  • ultraviolet rays
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83
Q
  • low energy
  • lower frequency
A

long wavelengths

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84
Q

long wavelengths

A
  • infrared
  • microwaves
  • radar
  • radio waves
85
Q

Most of us see all wavelengths from ___ to ___

A

760nm to 390nm

86
Q

760 nm color

A

red

87
Q

390 nm color

A

violet

88
Q

All animals see in the range from ___ to ___, which is also the radiation that plants use for photosynthesis

A

350 to 760 nm

89
Q
  • Any material that absorbs certain wavelengths specifically and therefore has distinctive color
  • Substances that absorb light as part of their biological function
A

pigment

90
Q

pigment of our skin

A

melanin

91
Q
  • Transfer absorbed light energy to electrons that then enter chemical reactions
  • The pigment should at least absorb high- energy radiation (ultraviolet light and gamma rays) instead of the fairly weak visible light
A

Photosynthetic pigments

92
Q

In general, plants only capture about ____ of the energy available in the electromagnetic radiation that strikes them.

A

5%

93
Q

an integral membrane protein complex that uses light energy to catalyze the transfer of electrons across the thylakoid membrane from plastocyanin to ferredoxin

A

phtosystem 1

94
Q

Location of Photosystem 1:
Plants and Algae

A

thylakoid membrane

95
Q

Location of Photosystem 1:
Photosynthetic bacteria

A

cell membrane

96
Q

An energy diagram for electron transfer in the “light reactions” of plant photosynthesis.

A

z-scheme

97
Q

A small protein with an active site consisting of two iron atoms bound to two sulfur atoms

A

ferredoxin

98
Q

The pair of chlorophylls of the photosystem I reaction center is given the special name ___ because they absorb red light of 700 nm most efficiently.

A

P700

99
Q

an electron acceptor and is going to be reduced to NADP or NADPH

A

NADP+

100
Q
  • donates electron to Photosystem 1
  • extracts electron from water molecules
A

Photosystem II

101
Q

Process of Photosystem II:

A
  1. light absorption
  2. high electron energy
  3. electron transport chain
  4. water molecule electron extraction
102
Q

Location of Photosystem II

A

inside the chloroplast in the thylakoid membrane

103
Q

Photosystem II:
1. Light energy is absorbed by pigment molecules and chlorophylls that then transfer that energy into the ___.

A

P680

104
Q

Photosystem II:
2. The photons from the light energy excite an electron putting it into a _____.

A

high-energy state

105
Q

Photosystem II:
3. What does the electron in the high-energy state undergo to go back to a low-energy state?

A

Electron Transport Chain

106
Q

Photosystem II:
4. The electron will then be donated to _____

A

Photosystem I

107
Q

Photosystem II:
5. Once the P680 loses the electron in grabs unto the nearest ____ ____ and takes away its electron.

A

water molecule

108
Q

Photosystem II:
6. The water molecule falls apart into ___ and ___ ___

A

oxygen and hydrogen ions

109
Q

gets new electrons from water molecules

A

phaeophytin

110
Q

donates electron to plastoquinone

A

Q

111
Q

donates electron to cytochrome b6/f complex

A

plastoquinone

112
Q

donates electron to plastocyanin

A

cytochrome b6/f complex

113
Q

donates electron to the chlorophyll a of the Photosystem I reaction center

A

plastocyanin

114
Q
  • energy currency of cells or living organisms
  • required for various cellular activities such as active transport of ions, muscle contraction, cell signaling, synthesis of biomolecules
  • primarily synthesized in the cellular respiration process
A

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

115
Q
  • product of the first stage of photosynthesis
  • used to help fuel the reactions that take place in the second stage of photosynthesis
A

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen (NADPH)

116
Q

third, and final, biological pathway responsible for the production of ATP from an inorganic phosphate and an ADP molecule via oxidative phosphorylation

A

Chemiosmotic phosphorylation

117
Q

any of the membranous disks of lamellae within plant chloroplasts that are composed of protein and lipid and are the sites of the photochemical reactions of photosynthesis

A

thylakoid

118
Q

stack of thylakoid

A

grana (singular: granum)

119
Q

thylakoids that lie between grana

A

frets

120
Q

liquid surrounding the thylakoid system

A

stroma

121
Q

continuous aqueous phase enclosed by the thylakoid membrane.

A

thylakoid lumen

122
Q

enzyme complex that catalyzes the formation of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

A

ATP Synthetase

123
Q

The ATP synthetase of chloroplasts is known specifically as the _____ ____

A

CF0 - CF1 complex

124
Q

Two (2) types of electron transport

A
  1. noncyclic electron transport
  2. cyclic electron transport
125
Q

electrons flow through the Z scheme from water to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate hydrogen (NADPH)

A

noncyclic electron transport

126
Q

Electrons flow from P700 to plastoquinone, which carries a proton to the lumen and returns the electron to P700

A

cyclic electron transport

127
Q

where conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate occurs

A

stroma reactions

128
Q

other names of stroma reactions

A
  • Calvin/Benson cycle
  • c3 cycle
129
Q

overall purpose of the Calvin/Benson cycle

A

convert carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into carbohydrates

130
Q

what does the Calvin/Benson cycle reactions use to convert CO2 to carbohydrates

A

ATP and NADPH produced by light reactions

131
Q

The Stages of Calvin/Benson Cycle

A
  1. Fixation
  2. Reduction
  3. Regeneration
132
Q

The enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide into an organic molecule, 3-PGA

A

fixation

133
Q

The organic molecule is reduced using electrons supplied by NADPH

A

reduction

134
Q

RuBP, the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated so that the cycle can continue

A

regeneration

135
Q

one of the largest and most complex enzymes known—a giant complex of two kinds of protein subunits

A

RuBP carboxylase (RUBISCO)

136
Q

set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the plant cell

A

metabolism

137
Q

breakdown of larger molecules

A

catabolism

138
Q

synthesis of larger molecules

A

anabolism

139
Q
  • composed of 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde, water, nitrates, sulfates, and minerals
  • basis of all animal metabolism
A

anabolic metabolism

140
Q

Types of Storage Compounds

A
  1. short-term storage
  2. intermediate-term storage
  3. long-term storage
141
Q
  • ATP and NADPH
  • last only briefly
A

short-term storage

142
Q
  • simple sugar glucose and disaccharide sucrose
  • last for week or months
A

intermediate-term storage

143
Q
  • starch and lipids
  • lasts for years
A

long-term storage

144
Q

anabolic synthesis of glucose

A

gluconeogenesis

145
Q

Starch (storage)

A
  • amylose
  • amylopectin
146
Q

structural

A

cellulose

147
Q
  • Unbranched Polymer of Glucose
  • Has one end and synthesized slowly
  • Digested more slowly
A

amylose

148
Q
  • Branched Polymer of Glucose
  • Has thousands of enzymes simultaneously adding glucose
  • Can be digested back to glucose monomers much more faster than amylose
A

amylopectin

149
Q
  • Digests the amylopectin portion of starch rapidly
  • Makes glucose available to our bloodstream quickly
A

salivary amylase

150
Q

polysaccharides are stored as ___ in animals

A

glycogen

151
Q

polysaccharides are stored as ___ in plants

A

starch

152
Q

where are starch located in plants

A
  • chloroplasts
  • amyloplasts
153
Q

Most of the 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde is retained, converts it to glucose, and polymerized to starch

A

daylight

154
Q

Chloroplasts are swollen because of large starch grains they contain

A

afternoon

155
Q

Starch is depolymerized back to glucose

A

night

156
Q

Three (3) important properties of light

A
  1. Quality
  2. Quantity
  3. Duration
157
Q
  • refers to the wavelength and the colors composing the light which affects the growth of the plant
  • factors are being manipulated by the planet refracting and reflecting certain types of waves and color varies by it’s rotation and atmosphere.
A

Quality of sunlight

158
Q
  • refers to light intensity, brightness and availability of light, and is affected by several factors
  • light is more available for photosynthesis during a clear day compared to a cloudy one as an example
A

Quantity of light

159
Q

number of hours of light a plant needs per 24-hour period and allows the plant to make sufficient food to survive and grow which can be embedded to the plant making some varieties that need a specific time-span to be exposed to light

A

Duration of Light

160
Q

major factor for a plant to absorb carbon dioxide

A

light

161
Q

Photosynthesis is __ and __ on overcast days, but __ on brighter days

A
  • slow and dull
  • faster
162
Q

The __ of photosynthesis is directly affected by the amount of light available

A

rate

163
Q

reduce the water lost from the leaf

A

Cuticle

164
Q
  • contains no chloroplasts
  • prevents water from getting out and stopping unwanted substances/organisms from getting in
A

Epidermis

165
Q

most of the photosynthesis occurs in the leaf

A

Palisade Mesophyll Layer

166
Q

contain a lot of chloroplasts to help them perform photosynthesis and are closely packed together to maximize light absorption

A

Palisade Cells

167
Q

The cells are not as closely packed as the cells in the palisade mesophyll layer

A

Spongy Mesophyll Layer and air spaces

168
Q

creates air spaces inside the leaf to enable gases to move in and out

A

Air Spaces

169
Q

There are not as many chloroplasts in the spongy mesophyll cells as there are in the palisade mesophyll cell

A

Spongy mesophyll layer

170
Q

holes found in leaves where it allows gases to diffuse in and out of the leaves

A

stoma

171
Q

two highly specialized epidermis cells that forms stoma

A

guard cells

172
Q

movement of gases in opposite directions

A

gas exchange

173
Q

excellent for absorbing carbon dioxide but inefficient for conserving water

A
  • Palisade parenchyma
  • spongy mesophyll
174
Q

Method of Minimizing Water

A
  1. Keep their stomata closed so much of the time that they would starve
  2. Reduce external surface by means of cylindrical leaves
175
Q

evaporation of water from plants occurring at the leaves while their stomata are open for the passage of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis

A

Transpiration

176
Q
  • wasteful pathway that competes with the Calvin cycle
  • begins when rubisco acts on oxygen instead of carbon dioxide.
A

Photorespiration

177
Q

occasionally binds to oxygen instead of carbon dioxide, acting as an oxygenase

A

RuBP carboxylase

178
Q

molecules produced when RuBP carboxylase binds to oxygen instead of carbon dioxide

A
  • one molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate
  • one of phosphoglycolate
179
Q

Where is phosphoglycolate transported

A

from the chloroplast to peroxisomes and mitochondria

180
Q

Some of the phosphoglycolate is converted to useful amino acids

A
  • glycine
  • serine
181
Q

much of the phosphoglycolate is broken down to

A

two molecules of carbon dioxide

182
Q

Three main types of photosynthesis are C3, C4, and CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism)

A
  1. C3 metabolism
  2. C4 metabolism
  3. Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
183
Q
  • mechanism by which carbon dioxide is absorbed, transported through, and concentrated in a leaf, whereas oxygen is kept away from RuBP carboxylase
  • occurs in leaves with Kranz anatomy
A

C4 metabolism

184
Q

meaning wreath or ring in Germany

A

Kranz

185
Q

C4 plants have little ____

A

photorespiration

186
Q

Mesophyll contains an enzyme called ___ ___; has a high affinity for carbon dioxide.

A

PEP carboxylase

187
Q

PEP carboxylase adds CO2 to PEP, producing a 4-carbon organic acid which is called ____, hence the name C4 metabolism.

A

Oxaloacetate

188
Q

Oxaloacetate is reduced to ___ by a molecule of ____

A
  • malate
  • NADPH
189
Q

Malate from throughout the mesophyll moves into the bundle sheath and breaks down into ____ by releasing carbon dioxide

A

pyruvate

190
Q

This reaction is powerful enough to drive the formation of a new molecule of ____, so, the process results in the transport by malate of both carbon dioxide and reducing power

A

NADPH

191
Q

Because NADPH is synthesized by this unusual method in bundle sheath cells, the bundle sheath chloroplasts primarily carry out ___ ___ ___, pumping protons and making ATP

A

cyclic electron transport

192
Q
  • Like any other carrier, malate must be shuttled back to its recharge site, the mesophyll.
  • In the bundle sheath it is converted to (1)___ by the release of (2)___ ___;
  • pyruvate moves back to the mesophyll and receives a phosphate group from ATP, which converts it to (3)___.
A

(1) pyruvate
(2) carbon dioxide
(3) PEP

193
Q

Types of Carbon dioxide processing of C3, C4, and CAM Plants:
Ultimate carboxylase

A

C3 plants, C4 plants, CAM plants
- RuBP carboxylase

194
Q

Types of Carbon dioxide processing of C3, C4, and CAM Plants:
Adjunct metabolism

A

C3 plants
- None

C4 plants, CAM plants
- CO2 transfer

195
Q

Types of Carbon dioxide processing of C3, C4, and CAM Plants:
Adjunct carboxylase

A

C3 plants
- none

C4 plants, CAM plants
- PEP carboxylase

196
Q

Types of Carbon dioxide processing of C3, C4, and CAM Plants:
Photorespiration

A

C3 plants
- high

C4 plants
- low

CAM plants
- moderate

197
Q

Types of Carbon dioxide processing of C3, C4, and CAM Plants:
Stomata open

A

C3 plants, C4 plants
- day

CAM plants
- night

198
Q

Under warm, dry conditions, ___ ___ has a strong selective advantage over ___ ___: Much less water is lost during carbon dioxide absorption

A
  • C4 metabolism
  • C3 metabolism
199
Q
  • second metabolic adaptation that improves the conservation of water while permitting photosynthesis
  • allows a plant to photosynthesize during the day, but only exchange gases at night.
A

Crassulacean Acid Metabolism(CAM) is a

199
Q

It is so named because it was first discovered in those members of the family ___

A

Crassulaceae

200
Q

A CAM plant leaves its stomata open at ___, allowing CO2 to enter and be converted as organic acids through a ___ ___ resembling the C4 pathway.

A
  • night
  • PEP reaction
201
Q

As the Calvin cycle requires ATP and NADPH, products of light-dependent reactions that does not occur at night, to function, the generated organic acids are ___ ___ ___ for later use

A

stored in vacuoles

202
Q

The mesophyll cells’ vacuoles release the organic acids that store CO2 during the ___ as the stomata ___ to preserve water.

A
  • day
  • close
203
Q

The CO2 is released by an ___ ___ ___ ___ of chloroplasts, where it enters the Calvin cycle to enable photosynthesis

A
  • enzyme in the stroma
204
Q

almost identical to those in chloroplasts, having chlorophyll a but lacking chlorophyll b

A

Cyanobacterial light reactions

205
Q

Accessory pigments of cyanobacteria

A
  • phycobilins
  • open-chain tetrapyrrole rings
206
Q

the ___ ___ forms accumulation spaces for protons and the generation of a ___ ___

A
  • folded membrane
  • chemiosmosis gradient
207
Q

Purple and green bacteria do not contain chlorophyll, either a or b, but have ____

A

bacteriochlorophylls

z - General Botany (14 decks)

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