2.3

Question 1

Definition of learning (with reference to skill acquisition)

Answer 1

A permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice

Question 2

Performance

Answer 2

A temporary occurrence that can change from time to time because of many internal and external influences such as anxiety - can influence mistakes,Skills aren’t always performed to their best effect

Question 3

The stages of learning

Answer 3

Stage 1: the cognitive stage, Stage 2: the associative stage, Stage 3: the autonomous stage

Question 4

7 main characteristics of the cognitive stage of learning

Answer 4

understanding and sub-routines are explored by trial and error (involves attempting the skill, thinking, adapting their actions, then having another attempt to see if they make any improvements),Involves thinking and working things out,The performer must think carefully about their actions ….,and try to understand how to copy demonstrations and instructions from the coach., The performer may carefully think about extrinsic feedback to help them improve, - means movements are slow and uncoordinated as the performer thinks before every movement, Motor programmes arent yet developed

Question 5

The type of performer who uses the cognitive stage of learning

Answer 5

Novices

Question 6

The associative stage of learning

Answer 6

motor programmes develop and performance becomes smoother and more coordinated throughout the stage as the py near the autonomous stage of learning, Lasts longer than the cognitive stage as a performer transitions from a competent beginner to an accomplished performer,The performer must keep practising to make progress, Trial and error may still be used to perfect actions, The performer uses internal feedback, Modelling may occur

Question 7

The autonomous stage of learning

Answer 7

The final stage of learning used by experts performers - where movement is detailed and specific, Reached after effective practice,Performers must continue to practice to remain in this stage of learning, Actions meet the characteristics of a skill and are automatically indertaken (autonomous),The performer can concentrate of fine details of the task as the basics of the task are almost performed without thinking,The motor programmes are fully developed and can help with the fine motor control of the action, E.g. An elite hockey player who can pick out the perfect pass to a team mate with precision and accuracy

Question 8

Modelling

Answer 8

When the performer compares their level of performance to that of a top-class performer and then try to adjust oractice to reach the top level

Question 9

Feedback

Answer 9

Information received that is used to amend performance and make improvements. An essential tool used to help players improve

Question 10

Positive feedback

Answer 10

Information about what was good to provide encouragement and motivation to maintain effort, It tells the player what went well, Often combined with praise

Question 11

Negative feedback

Answer 11

Error correction,Gives the performer information about what’s going wrong so errors and bad habits can be corrected and eliminated,Can be appreciated as performers gain experience as it gives clarity on aspects of the task that must be improved

Question 12

Extrinsic feedback

Answer 12

Derived from an outside source e.g a coach, Allows the performer to see what they must improve on and what they must maintain within the task,Involves advice on types of practice and methods needed to improve

Question 13

Intrinsic feedback

Answer 13

From within, Becomes more common as players gain experience, Performers can use their feel for the task, from their sense of kinaesthesis, to give personal feedback E.g. When they’ve hit a bad shot

Question 14

Knowledge of results

Answer 14

Feedback which gives information on the initial outcome of the attempted skill,Gives an indication of the success of the skill E.g if a pass or a shot reached its target or scored, Successful outcomes are maintained and unsuccessful ones are eliminated, Forms an early basis for improvement

Question 15

Knowledge of performance

Answer 15

More detailed feedback and analysis of the technique, Gives reasons for the result of the performance E.g why a shot missed or scored, It concerns how technique can be developed to produce a better performance than the previous one

Question 16

How coaches ensure feedback is effective

Answer 16

By making it understandable and relevant to the specific performer so they can relate to it,By giving it in simple, direct terms,Always include some positives to maintain motivation, It must be appropriate to the performer’s level of ability

Question 17

Feedback for beginners

Answer 17

Positive - As it motivates the performer to continue learning the task, External - As they have little existing knowledge of the skill,Use knowledge of results as a starting point

Question 18

Feedback for a performer in the associative stage of learning

Answer 18

External feedback early in the stage of learning to refine movements, The use of moe intrinsic feedback as the performer develops through this stage of learning - used to control the performance

Question 19

Feedback for an expert

Answer 19

Knowledge of performance- on how to control their actions, Benefit from negative feedback, Intrinsic feedback - uses their existing knowledge of the task to make internal adjustments

Question 20

A learning plateau

Answer 20

A period of no improvement in performance of a task

Question 21

A learning curve

Answer 21

A graph/visual representation of what happens when a closed skill (a new/novel task learned from scratch e.g. throwing balls into a bucket from a set distance over a set time for as many attempts as you can - block each attempt into sets of ten + count the successful attempts) is performed repeatedly over a period of time by a novice, How many stages are there in a typical learning curve

Question 22

How many stages are there in a typical learning curve

Answer 22

4

Question 23

Stage 1 of the learning curve

Answer 23

The rate of learning is slow + performance level is poor as the performer is new to the task and is in the cognitive stage of learning - so they’re working out the required sub-routines of the task + using trial + error

Question 24

Stage 2 of the learning curve

Answer 24

There’s a rapid acceleration in the rate of learning as the performer begins to master the task + gain success - provides positive feedback + motivation

Question 25

Stage 3 of the learning curve

Answer 25

There’s no improvement in the rate of learning - the performance plateaus

Question 26

Stage 4 of the learning curve

Answer 26

A period towards the end of the task when, partly due to fatigue, drive reduction occurs

Question 27

Drive reduction

Answer 27

An end-of-task period when performance + rate of improvement may get worse

Question 28

Reasons for drive reduction

Answer 28

The performer has already gained success on the task - so the initial drive to succeed is lost, The challenge of mastering the task has been overcome - so a new challenge or extension to the task = needed to maintain motivation

Question 29

Causes of the plateau

Answer 29

Lack of motivation + energy for the task - due to a lack of incentives or extrinsic rewards, Boredom - caused by the repetitive nature of a closed skill, Poor coaching - incorrect instructions or practice methods mean the skill is done incorrectly, Limit of ability - may prevent the performer improving as they’ve reached the full extent of their ability + don’t have the underlying skill level, Targets set too low - mean the performer is unable to use their full range of skills so it doesn’t allow them to improve, Fatigue - due to continuous action over an extended period of time results in tiredness + DOMS in the muscles being used

Question 30

Solutions to the plateau effect

Answer 30

The task/target could be extended - so it tests the performer to see if they can meet the task extensions, A new coach - cold raise performance levels by offering praise + positive feedback - provides motivation, A rest - avoids fatigue, Variety of the task - avoids boredom, The concept of plateaus could be explained to the performer - prevents them taking personal responsibility for their lack of improvement, Extrinsic feedback - aids performance + motivation

Question 31

Methods of guidance

Answer 31

Used by a coach, in addition to feedback, to aid learning by offering assistance, Mainly used for beginners but can be used by experts for technical advice

Question 32

The methods of guidance

Answer 32

Visual, verbal, manual + mechanical guidance

Question 33

Visual guidance

Answer 33

It’s guidance that can be seen (a demonstration of the task) - given by a coach or another player or using media formats e.g. social media sites, books, charts or videos, It creates a mental image for a beginner which they can reference for future practice, If given by a peer, it should be within the capabilities of the player attempting to copy it - means the peer should be of equal ability - maintains motivation + confidence, The coach/player should follow the guidelines of observational learning, The demonstration should be shown from different angles, Mental rehearsal can be used to aid learning, The key points of the skill should be highlighted + reinforcement should be used to encourage retention of the skill in the memory

Question 34

Advantages of visual guidance

Answer 34

It highlights specific weaknesses e.g. during indoor rock climbing - the coach may point out to the performer the exact point or hold on which to place their foot, It shows what the skill should look like as a result of practice,It creates a mental images, It aids verbal guidance

Question 35

Disadvantages of visual guidance

Answer 35

The demonstration must be accurate or it may be copied + learned incorrectly, The performer may be unable to copy the demonstration if the coach doesn’t ensure success by making the demonstration suitable for the performer, Too much information can cause the performer to become confused,It must be steady + slow

Question 36

Verbal guidance

Answer 36

It’s an explanation of the task It’s usually used with visual guidance - the coach speaks to the performer during the demonstration to highlight key points - helps build the correct mental image in the memory, It’s a means of giving feedback

Question 37

Advantages of verbal guidance

Answer 37

It can be used by an experienced performer - technical advice = given to complement actions in practice or tactical advice is given during a performance e.g. when a basketball player is told to mark an opponent - the coach uses verbal guidance as a prompt to ensure the correct actions are displayed, It can be used by coaches to explain aspects of conditioning or fitness e.g. when a more physical session is planned + the coach the coach only needs to describe + explain the sessions without the need for a demonstration

Question 38

Disadvantages of verbal guidance

Answer 38

Too much information may cause the performer to become confused + it places too much demand on the memory system,The performer may lose concentration if the guidance isn’t brief, relevant + meaningful to the performer,The coach must use appropriate language for the performer’s level of ability e.g. a beginner may not understand technical terms but an expert would, The coach should ensure they use the correct type of feedback for the performer e.g. positive for a novice + negative for an expert

Question 39

Manual guidance

Answer 39

Involves physical support e.g. holding a gymnast on a vault or during a handstand, It can involve a forced response e.g. when the coach holds the arm of a tennis player to help them learn the movement of a forehand shot

Question 40

Advantages of manual guidance

Answer 40

It eliminates danger e.g. supporting a gymnast prevents a fall,It helps build the confidence of the performer - they might not be able to gain the feel of the whole task without help + support,It reduces anxiety associated with doing dangerous or difficult tasks if the performer has support on hand e.g. a complex task could be broken into sub-routines with the help of physical support e.g. during a gymnastic floor routine - they could be held in a certain position to gai the feel of the point at which they should release their hands

Question 41

Disadvantages of manual guidance

Answer 41

It can hinder performance if over-used, One the initial feel for the task is established, over-reliance on physical support interferes with the realistic feel of the task - causes bad habits,Over-dependence on support causes the performer to feel unable to do the task individually - reduces confidence,The coach should prevent over-usage of this type of guidance, The coach being in a close proximity to the performer may be off-putting

Question 42

Mechanical guidance

Answer 42

It’s an artificial aid (a from of physical support), It’s a device used to help performance e.g. armbands in swimming or a harness one the trampoline

Question 43

Advantages of mechanical guidance

Answer 43

It builds confidence - due to the successful completion of the task (despite the assistance), It eliminates danger + risk of injury e.g. harnesses on trampolines or swimming armbands, It gives an early feel for the whole skill - promotes learning by alerting the senses to the movements of the task, It can be used with disabled or injured athletes - allows a feel of the whole task which can be developed

Question 44

Disadvantages of mechanical guidance

Answer 44

It can interfere with the feel of the task if over-used, The performer may become over-dependent on it - reduces confidence when they do it individually, Can reduce motivation if the performer feels the skill isn’t being done independently, Incorrect intrinsic feedback can cause bad habits if extrinsic feedback isn’t also given

Question 45

Theories of learning

Answer 45

Strategies used by coaches and players to enhance the learning of skills - outlined with theoretical concepts

Question 46

The theories of learning

Answer 46

Operant conditioning, Observational learning (Bandura), Social development theory: Vygotsky + insight learning (Gestaltist theories)

Question 47

Operant conditioning

Answer 47

It involves the use of reinforcement to ensure that correct responses are repeated, It’s a behaviourist theory, It uses a manipulative approach - ensures skills are learned,It uses the principle that actions for which the performer is rewarded = more likely to be repeated - as -if you feel you’ve done something well, you’re more likely to remember it,Based on the work of psychologist Skinner (1948) - he observed rats in a cage (the ‘Skinner box’) which was fitted with a mechanism that delivered food to the rats when it was touched - 1st - the rats hit it by accident but they then learned to hit it to get food, It works on the principle that reinforced actions are strengthened + incorrect actions are weakened, It’s based on the idea that success acts as a satisfier to strengthen correct actions - during trial and error - successful responses are rewarded so a re likely to be repeated + unsuccessful responses are given an annoyer like criticism so are likely to be avoided in the future, Mental practice can be used to go over the correct task in the mind - helps shape behaviour, It works by strengthening the S-R bond

Question 48

S-R bonds

Answer 48

Stimulus response bonds, E.g. during badminton - if a shuttle cock is returned high in the air + mid-court 0- the best responses is a smash shot - linking the stimulus + response allows actions to be learned

Question 49

How coaches can link stimuli to responses using the principle of operant conditioning

Answer 49

Using positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement + punishment - all help shape behaviour

Question 50

Characteristics of operant conditioning

Answer 50

Based on trial + error, The coach may manipulate the environment when using it e.g. using whole or whole-part-whole practice to isolate key aspects of the task, It uses reinforcement to shape behaviour

Question 51

Behaviourist theory

Answer 51

Attempts to explain how actions (responses) can be linked to stimuli

Question 52

Satisfier

Answer 52

An action that promotes a pleasant feeling so that correct responses are repeated

Question 53

Annoyer

Answer 53

An action that creates unease to promote the avoidance of incorrect responses

Question 54

Reinforcement

Answer 54

Increases the likelihood of the correct response being repeated

Question 55

Positive reinforcement

Answer 55

It’s when a pleasant stimulus is given after the correct response to increase the likelihood of the correct response reoccurring in the future by giving the performer motivation to repeat the success, E.g. a coach offering praise to a swimmer for the correct leg action or giving a reward certificated to a young swimmer for swimming 25m

Question 56

Negative reinforcement

Answer 56

Involves promoting correct actions occurring by removing an unpleasant stimulus after the correct response - means negative criticism is withdrawn when the performer performs correct actions,e.g.: - a coach who gives negative to a performer for incorrect technique would stop the negative feedback when the technique improves - if a coach suddenly stops telling the performer they’re doing badly or performing the skill incorrectly - the performer knows they’ve begun to perform the skill correctly

Question 57

Punishment

Answer 57

An unpleasant stimulus to prevent incorrect actions recurring, e.g.: - a coach who gives negative to a performer for incorrect technique would stop the negative feedback when the technique improves - if a coach suddenly stops telling the performer they’re doing badly or performing the skill incorrectly - the performer knows they’ve begun to perform the skill correctly, e.g. a player who is given a red card for a bad foul in football should learn not to repeat the offence

Question 58

Observational learning (Bandura)

Answer 58

Researched by psychologist Albert Bandura in 1977,Suggests acceptable + unacceptable behaviour can be learned by watching + then copying others e.g. when young footballers watch + copy the celebrations of professionals - this ability can be used by a coach by using strategies to ensure demonstrations + role models used to show skills during practice are successfully copied by other performers

Question 59

The 4 processes that, Bandura suggested, would make a performer more likely to copy a demonstration

Answer 59

Ensuring attention, retention, motor production + motivation

Question 60

Ensuring attention

Answer 60

Involves making the performance attractive to the performer, Make sure the performer takes note of relevant cues, Sell the demonstration to the performer by stating the reason why they must learn it (that it will benefit their performance) e.g. tell a tennis player the reason you’re showing them a demonstration for a sliced serve is to drag the opponent off court to open up the court for a winning shot, Make the demonstration stand out by making it loud + attractive/bright - makes it more memorable, Ensure information is loud + clear,Ensure the demonstration is accurate

Question 61

Retention

Answer 61

Remembering the important information of a demonstration + being able to recall it from the memory system

Question 62

Ensuring retention

Answer 62

Break any information that’s given into chunks + repeat it, Use a role model or an expert player to perform the demonstration to ensure it’s accurate, Allow the performer to attempt + practice the skill as soon as it’s seen so it’s fresh in the mind + so they can remember how to do it

Question 63

Motor production

Answer 63

Having the mental + physical ability to do the task

Question 64

Ensuring motor production

Answer 64

Involves ensuring the player is physically capable enough to copy the demonstration i.e giving a task that’s suitable for the performer’s ability + ensuring they understand it, For novices, success should be ensured by setting easier tasks + then letting the performer + the complexity of the task progress, The performer should be given time to practice + learn before moving on to the next part of the task

Question 65

Motivation

Answer 65

Having the drive to do the task

Question 66

Ensuring motivation

Answer 66

Give positive reinforcement + offer positive feedback

Question 67

How to make a demonstration more likely to be copied

Answer 67

Ensure it’s performed by a performer of similar ability to the learner, Reinforce it, Make it memorable (visually + physically), Ensure it’s accurate, Make it relevant

Question 68

Social development theory: Vygotsky (1978)

Answer 68

Looks at learning by association with others e.g. from coaches (MKOs)+ fellow performers, Based on how young children develop with the use of interaction, Involves learning by a process called inter - psychological learning - once external advice has been absorbed - learning then occurs internally, within the learner - using cognitive aspects of skill acquisition (associative stage of learning) = intra-psychological learning - allows the learner to assess their current level of performance + what else they need to learn to improve - MKOs may give more advice as the skill is advanced,Suggests learning can be constructed in stages - skills (that are learnt from MKOs) are built on existing knowledge - the actions needed to be taken by the performer are up to them

Question 69

Zone of proximal development

Answer 69

The next stage of learning (what they need to learn next) based on the performer’s needs, expectations + current level of performance, e.g. a hockey player may be able to hold the stick + roll the ball along the ground, they can only run with the ball, keeping it close to the stick, with the help of others, + they can’t yet dribble against opponents

Question 70

The stages of proximal development

Answer 70

1. What can I do?, 2. What can I do with help? ,3. What can’t I yet do?

Question 71

Constructivism

Answer 71

Building up learning in stages based on current levels of performance

Question 72

Inter-psychological learning

Answer 72

Learning from others (e.g. MKOs) externally through advice, feedback + tactical knowledge

Question 73

Intra-psychological learning

Answer 73

Learning using others/MKOs to develop knowledge

Question 74

MKOs

Answer 74

Influential others known as ‘more knowledgeable others’,They give direct examples + advice + demonstrate values + actions e.g. high levels of effort, healthy lifestyles + clear communication - can be copied by the learner

Question 75

Insight learning (Gestaltist theories)

Answer 75

Suggested by a group of German psychologists called the ‘Gestalts’ - means to concentrate on the whole instead of parts - so this theory is best used in realistic situations that are similar to the real performance, Involves posing questions to the performer - not trial + error, Thinking is encouraged - the performer may begin to think about competitive situations in the future, It can give a performer a certain role e.g. a fast finisher in a race may give another performer the role of a front runner,It encourages the performer to think for themselves - develops + uses the cognitive process - better than just listening to an MKO as it generates more understanding of the actions of a skill in different situations,Involves using existing knowledge to deal with problems + trying out solutions e.g. a 3000m runner may set a fast pace throughout the race to reduce the impact of the fast last 400m of other athletes - if it’s a successful tactic - they’ll use it a if they’re faced with a similar problem - means the athlete has learned to change their behaviour - provides self-satisfaction + motivation as the athlete has solved the problem independently

Question 76

What does Gestalt mean

Answer 76

means to concentrate on the whole instead of parts

Question 77

When is insight theory best used

Answer 77

in realistic situations that are similar to the real performance

Question 78

What does insight theory involve

Answer 78

Involves posing questions to the performer - not trial + error, Thinking is encouraged - the performer may begin to think about competitive situations in the future, It can give a performer a certain role

Question 79

What will insight theory help the performer with

Answer 79

encourages the performer to think for themselves - develops + uses the cognitive process

Question 80

Why is insight theory better than listening to MKO

Answer 80

it generates more understanding of the actions of a skill in different situations, Involves using existing knowledge to deal with problems + trying out solutions provides self-satisfaction + motivation as the athlete has solved the problem independently