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1.1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the cardiovascular system’s function

A

It’s the body’s transport system, It delivers oxygen and nutrients to body tissues and gathers waste products and transports heat (a byproduct of respiration) to the skin’s surface

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2
Q

The 2 main components of the cardiovascular system

A

The heart and blood vessels

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3
Q

4 Chambers of the heart

A

The right and left atria and ventricles

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4
Q

Function of the atria

A

To pump blood down into the ventricles

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5
Q

Why atria have thinner muscular walls

A

All they have to do is pump blood into the ventricles

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6
Q

Why ventricles have thicker muscular walls

A

They have to contract with greater force in order to force the blood out of the heart

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7
Q

Why the left side of the heart has thicker muscular walls and is larger

A

It needs to pump the oxygenated blood all the way around the body

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8
Q

Function of the right ventricle

A

To pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs

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9
Q

The main blood vessels of the heart

A

Vena cava (inferior and superior), Pulmonary veins and arteries (left and right), Aorta

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10
Q

Function of the aorta

A

Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body

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11
Q

Function of the vena cava

A

Brings deoxygenated blood from the body back to the right atrium

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12
Q

Function of the pulmonary vein

A

Delivers oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium

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13
Q

Function of the pulmonary arteries

A

Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

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14
Q

The 4 main valves in the heart

A

The tricuspid, bicuspid, aortic semilunar and the pulmonary semilunar valves

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15
Q

The function of valves

A

They regulate blood flow by allowing blood to pass through and then closing to prevent back flow

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16
Q

Location of the tricuspid valve

A

Between the right atrium and ventricle

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17
Q

Location of the bicuspid valve

A

Between the left atrium and ventricle

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18
Q

Location of the aortic semilunar valve

A

Between the left ventricle and aorta

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19
Q

Location of the pulmonary semilunar valve

A

Between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery

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20
Q

What is the septum

A

The wall dividing the left and right sides of the heart

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21
Q

What are the chordae tendineae

A

Your ‘heart strings’ - in your ventricles - from top to bottom

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22
Q

What is the cardiac conduction system

A

A group of specialised cells located in the wall of the heart

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23
Q

Function of the cardiac conduction system

A

It sends impulses to the cardiac muscle, causing it to contract, Ensures HR increases during exercise to allow working muscles to receive more oxygen

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24
Q

Define myogenic

A

The ability of the heart to generate its own impulses

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25
Q

Sequence of the Cardiac conduction system

A

SAN node, A trial systole, AVN, Bundle of HIS, Bundle branches. Purkinje fibers, Ventricular systole

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26
Q

What is the sinoatrial node/SAN/SA node

A

A small mass of cardiac muscle in the wall of the right atrium

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27
Q

Function of the SAN (the ‘pacemaker’)

A

It’ generates the heartbeat with an electrical signal which spreads through the walls of the atria of the heart (causing them to contract (atrial systole) and force blood into the ventricles) as a wave (of excitation - like a Mexican Wave)

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28
Q

The function of the AVN/AV node/atrioventricular node

A

It relays the impulse between the upper and lower chambers of the heart, It delays the transmission of the cardiac impulse for about 0.1 seconds to allow the atria to fully contract before the ventricles begin to contract

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29
Q

Location of the AVN

A

In the very centre of the heart

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30
Q

What is the Bundle of HIS

A

A collection of heart muscle cells located in the septum and branches out into 2 Bundle branches

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31
Q

Function of the Bundle of HIS and Bundle branches

A

They transmit the electrical impulse for the AVN to the ventricles

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32
Q

Define systole

A

When the heart contracts

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33
Q

What are Purkinje fibers

A

Smaller bundle branches which spread through the ventricle walls

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34
Q

Function of the Purkinje fibers

A

They conduct impulses throughout the walls of the ventricles causing them to contract (ventricle systole)

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35
Q

What is the neural control mechanism and what is its function

A

Involves the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and controls the rate at which cardiac impulses are fired by the SAN

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36
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system and what is its function

A

It’s a part of the autonomic nervous system that decreases Heart rate (HR)

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37
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system and what is its function

A

It’s a part of the autonomic nervous system that stimulates the heart to beat faster (increases HR, SV and Q) because sympathetic nervous impulses are sent to the SAN by the brain and there’s a decrease in parasympathetic nerve impulses

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38
Q

What 2 parts is the nervous system made of

A

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system

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39
Q

What does the CNS consist of

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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40
Q

What does the peripheral nervous system consist of

A

Nerve cells that transmit info to and from the brain (relay neurones)

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41
Q

What coordinates the 2 nervous sytems

A

The cardiac control centre in the medulla oblongata in the brain

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42
Q

What are the 3 main types of receptors that stimulate the cardiac control centre

A

Baroreceptors, chemoreceptors and proprioceptors

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43
Q

What are chemoreceptors and where are they found

A

They’re tiny structures in the carotid arteries (blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich blood to the head, brain and face and are located on each side of the neck) and aortic arch.

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44
Q

What is the function of chemoreceptors

A

To detect changes in blood acidity caused by an increase or decrease in the concentrations of oxygen and CO2 and levels of lactic acid

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45
Q

What are baroreceptors

A

They’re special sensors containing nerve endings.

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46
Q

Where are baroreceptors found

A

In tissues in the aortic arch + carotid arteries

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47
Q

What is the function of baroreceptors and how do they work

A

They respond to the stretching of the arterial wall caused by changes in blood pressure, They establish a set point and an increase above or a decrease below this point results in the baroreceptors sending impulses to the medulla oblongata. An increase in pressure causes an increase in stretch of the baroreceptor sensors and eventually results in decreased HR. A decrease in stretch causes an increase in HR. At the start of exercise, the set point increases as you don’t want your HR to slow down when going exercise.

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48
Q

What are proprioceptors

A

Sensory nerve endings

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49
Q

Where are proprioceptors found

A

Muscels + tendons

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50
Q

What is the function of proprioceptors and how do they work

A

They detect changes in muscle movement and body position. At the start of exercise, they detect an increase in muscle movement and send impulses to the medulla oblongata, which sends an impulse through the sympathetic nervous system to the SAN. When it causes the parasympathetic nervous system to stimulate the SAN, HR decreases.

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51
Q

What is the hormonal control mechanism

A

It’s the effect of hormones on HR such as the release of adrenaline

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52
Q

What is adrenaline

A

A stress hormone released by sympathetic nerves and cardiac nerve during exercise

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53
Q

The role of adrenaline

A

Causes an increase in HR by stimulating the SAN, which also increases SV and Q, means more blood is pumped to working muscles so they can receive more O2 for the energy they need

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54
Q

What is stroke volume (SV)

A

The volume of blood pumped out by the ventricles in each contraction, On average = 70ml at rest

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55
Q

What 3 factors affect SV

A

Venous return (VR), Elasticity of cardiac fibres, contractility of cardiac tissue (myocardium)

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56
Q

Starling’s Law

A

More elasticity of cardiac fibres means more blood in heart, means more force of contraction, increases ejection fraction

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57
Q

Ejection fraction

A

The percentage of blood pumped out by the ventricle per beat (usually 60% but can be 85% after training)

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58
Q

Elasticity of cardiac fibres

A

The amount they stretch during the diastole phase

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59
Q

Heart Rate (HR)

A

The no. of times the heart beats per min ( on average is 72 at rest)

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60
Q

What is cardiac output (Q)

A

The volume of blood pumped out by the heart’s ventricles per min

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61
Q

Cardiac output formula

A

Q=SVxHR

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62
Q

2 factors affecting cardiac output

A

HR and SV

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63
Q

HR in response to exercise

A

It increases in direct proportion to exercise intensity (until a certain point - max HR)

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64
Q

Maximal exercise example

A

Sprinting

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65
Q

Sub-maximal exercise example

A

Jogging

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66
Q

How HR responds to exercise (the sequence)

A

Anticipatory rise before exercise due to adrenaline, Sharp rise (due mainly to aerobic work), Sharp rise (due to anaerobic exercise) OR Steady state (as oxygen demand is met), Rapid decline (after exercise), Slower recovery (as body systems return to resting levels and the waste products are removed- E.g. lactic acid)

67
Q

Cardiac hypertrophy

A

The thickening of the muscular wall of the heart

68
Q

What causes cardiac hypertrophy

A

Regular aerobic exercise

69
Q

Benefits of cardiac hypertrophy

A

The heart becomes bigger and stronger, Larger SV and Q can be reached, Bradycardia, Diastolic volume of the ventricles increases

70
Q

Bradycardia

A

A decrease in resting HR below 60BPM

71
Q

Benefit of bradycardia

A

Oxygen delivery to the muscles improves as there’s less oxygen needed for contractions of the heart

72
Q

Cardiac output in response to exercise

A

It increases as the intensity of exercise increases until maximal intensity is reached and then it plateaus

73
Q

Comparison of cardiac output between a trained and non trained person at rest

A

It’s the same (but the HR of the untrained person is higher)

74
Q

Comparison of cardiac output between a trained and non trained person during maximal exercise

A

The trained person has a higher cardiac output (as they have the same max. HR but a larger SV)

75
Q

Benefit of higher cardiac output

A

You can transport more oxygen to the working muscles

76
Q

How distribution of blood flow changes during exercise

A

A higher proportion of blood passes to the working muscles and less passes to organs like the intestines (as it’s less in demand) but the amount of blood going to the brain and kidneys stays the same

77
Q

Stroke volume in response to exercise

A

It increases as intensity increases up to 40-60% max. effort then it plateaus and begins to fall

78
Q

A reason why increase in SV plateaus at 40-60% effort

A

At a higher HR, there’s a shorter diastolic phase (the ventricles don’t have as much time to fill up)

79
Q

(Coronary) Heart disease (CHD)

A

When coronary arteries (supplying blood to the heart) become blocked or narrow due to a gradual build-up of atheroma

80
Q

Atheroma

A

A fatty deposit found in the inner lining of an artery

81
Q

Atherosclerosis

A

When arteries harden and narrow as they become clogged up by atheroma

82
Q

Causes of atherosclerosis

A

High blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, lack of exercise and smoking

83
Q

Angina

A

Chest pain that occurs when the blood supply, through the coronary arteries, to the cardiac muscle is constricted

84
Q

Cause of a blood clot

A

If a piece of atheroma breaks off in the coronary artery, resulting in a blockage

85
Q

Causes of a heart attack

A

When the supply of oxygenated blood to the heart muscle is cut off (a blood clot in the coronary arteries)

86
Q

Benefits of regular exercise on the cardiovascular system

A

A healthy and efficient heart (increased SV due to stronger and bigger heart), It maintains the flexibility of blood vessels - ensures good blood flow, normal blood pressure and low cholesterol levels

87
Q

The recommended minimum of moderate exercise per week E.g. Brisk walking

A

150 mins

88
Q

Blood pressure

A

The force exerted by the blood against the blood vessel wall (due to the heart pumping), Blood flow x resistance

89
Q

Consequences of high blood pressure

A

Increased strain on the heart and arteries - causing increased risk of heart attack, heart failure, kidney disease, strokes and dementia

90
Q

How to reduce blood pressure

A

Regular aerobic exercise

91
Q

The effect of regular aerobic exercise on blood pressure and the risk of heart disease

A

It lowers systolic and diastolic blood pressure by up to 5-10 mmHg which reduces the risk of heart disease by up to 20%

92
Q

Types of cholesterol

A

LDL (low density lipoproteins - ‘bad’) and HDL (high density lipoproteins - ‘good’)

93
Q

The role of LDL

A

It transports cholesterol in the blood to the tissues

94
Q

Why is LDL ‘bad’

A

It’s linked to an increased risk of heart disease

95
Q

The role of HDL

A

It transports excess cholesterol in the blood back to the liver where it’s broken down

96
Q

Why is HDL ‘good’

A

It lowers the risk of developing heart disease

97
Q

The effect of regular physical activity on cholesterol levels

A

It lowers levels of LDL and significantly increases levels of HDL

98
Q

A stroke

A

When the blood supply to the brain is cut off causing damage to brain cells which start to die

99
Q

Consequences of a stroke

A

Brain exercise injury, disability and death

100
Q

Types of stroke

A

Ischaemic strokes (the most common) and haemorrhagic strokes

101
Q

An ischaemic stroke

A

Occurs when a blood clot stops blood supply to the brain

102
Q

A haemorrhagic stroke

A

Occurs when a weakened blood vessel supplying blood to the brain bursts

103
Q

How regular exercise reduces risk of strokes

A

It helps you to lower your blood pressure and maintain a healthy weight which can reduce your risk of stroke by 27%

104
Q

Steady state

A

Where the athlete is able to meet the oxygen demand with the oxygen supply so HR remains constant

105
Q

Cardiovascular drift

A

When HR slowly climbs during ‘steady state’, It’s a progressive decrease in SV and arterial blood pressure and a progressive rise in HR

106
Q

When does cardiovascular drift occur

A

During prolonged exercise (after 10 minutes) in a warm environment with a constant exercise intensity

107
Q

Why cardiovascular drift occurs

A

When we sweat, we lose fluid volume, some of which is our plasma volume, which reduces venous return (VR) and SV - means HR increases to compensate and maintain a higher cardiac output to create energy to cool you down

108
Q

How to minimise cardiovascular drift

A

Maintain high fluid consumption before and during exercise

109
Q

Types of circulation

A

Pulmonary (lungs) and systemic (body)

110
Q

Sequence of blood vessels

A

Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins

111
Q

Features of veins

A

Blood is at a low pressure, Valves, Wide lumen, Thin muscle/elastic tissue layers

112
Q

Features of arteries

A

High pressure blood, Wide muscle/elastic tissue layer, Smooth inner layer, Small lumen

113
Q

Features of capillaries

A

Only wide enough for one red blood cell to pass through - slows down blood flow and allows exchange of nutrients with the tissues by diffusion

114
Q

Impact of (systolic) blood pressure on blood flow + VR

A

Higher (systolic) blood pressure means higher blood flow + VR

115
Q

Systolic (blood) pressure

A

The pressure in the arteries when the ventricles are contracting

116
Q

Diastolic (blood) pressure

A

The pressure in the arteries as the ventricles contract

117
Q

Where blood pressure is measured

A

At the brachial artery in the upper arm

118
Q

A typical resting blood pressure

A

120/80 mmHg (mm of mercury)

119
Q

What determines blood pressure

A

The (type of) blood vessel and the distance from the heart

120
Q

How distance from the heart affects blood pressure

A

Further from the heart means lower blood pressure

121
Q

Why venous return (active) mechanisms are needed

A

Low blood pressure in the veins (+ a low pressure gradient due to low venous blood pressure + right atrial blood pressure) makes it difficult to return blood to the heart + their large lumen offers little resistance to blood flow, During exercise, extra VR mechanisms are needed to meet the increased oxygen demand + because HR increases

122
Q

Venous return

A

The return of blood to the heart via the vena cava,The percentage of our total volume of blood contained in the veins at rest

123
Q

The percentage of our total volume of blood contained in the veins at rest

A

70

124
Q

What is the benefit of having lots of blood contained in the veins at rest

A

It can be returned to the heart when needed, such as in exercise (venous return increases)

125
Q

Starling’s law

A

If venous return (VR) increases, the heart contracts with greater force, which increases ejection fraction + SV (means that, normally, VR = SV)

126
Q

Venous return mechanisms

A

The skeletal muscle pump, the respiratory pump, pocket valves (there’s also smooth muscle, gravity and the suction pump action of the heart)

127
Q

The skeletal muscle pump

A

As muscles contract and relax, they change shape and press on nearby veins - causes a pump effect - squeezes blood to the heart

128
Q

The respiratory pump

A

When muscles contract + relax during breathing, pressure changes occur in the thoracic (chest) and abdominal (stomach cavities) - causes nearby veins to be compressed - assists venous return

129
Q

Pocket valves

A

They ensure blood flows in one direction + prevent backflow by closing after they’ve allowed blood through

130
Q

Smooth muscle (as a venous return mechanism)

A

It’s located in the veins as a very thin layer + it helps squeeze blood back to the heart

131
Q

Gravity (as a venous return mechanism)

A

It aids VR from the upper body

132
Q

Why it’s important to maintain VR during exercise

A

It ensures skeletal muscles are receiving enough oxygen to meet the demands of exercise

133
Q

The VR mechanisms used at rest

A

Valves + smooth muscle

134
Q

Why the respiratory pump and skeletal muscle pump are effective during exercise

A

Our muscles are constantly contracting and our breathing is elevated

135
Q

Why it’s important to maintain VR mechanism after exercise

A

It avoids blood pooling (blood collecting in the veins)

136
Q

Why an active cool down is important (relating to VR mechanisms)

A

It keeps the skeletal muscle pump and respiratory pump working

137
Q

The pressure gradient

A

It’s (mean systemic) venous pressure minus the right atrial pressure

138
Q

Factors affecting VR

A

The pressure gradient and venous resistance

139
Q

Why the pressure gradient is volatile

A

Venous blood pressure right atrial pressure are normally both low - so small changes can really affect the pressure gradient - affects VR (e.g. during inspiration - small changes in blood pressure between the atria + abdominal cavity largely increases the pressure gradient driving VR from the peripheral circulation (circulation to + from your extremities) to the right atrium)

140
Q

The key role of oxygen during exercise

A

It is involved in energy production (from respiration - which we use during exercise), during exercise, it diffuses into the capillaries supplying the skeletal muscles; 3% dissolves into plasma + 97% combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin

141
Q

Plasma

A

The fluid part of blood (mainly water) that surrounds blood cells + transports them

142
Q

Haemoglobin

A

An iron-containing pigment found in red blood cells, which combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. When fully saturated, it will carry 4 oxygen molecules - occurs when (partial) pressure of oxygen in the blood is high e.g. in the alveolar capillaries of the lungs

143
Q

Myoglobin (‘muscle haemoglobin’)

A

An iron-containing muscle pigment in slow-twitch muscle fibres which has a higher affinity for oxygen than haemoglobin. It stores the oxygen in the muscle fibres for rapid use during exercise. it has a high affinity for oxygen + will store the oxygen for the mitochondria until it’s used by the muscles

144
Q

Mitochondria

A

Often referred to as the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell as respiration + energy production occur there. They are where aerobic respiration occurs within muscles

145
Q

Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation

A

Oxygen is released (at the tissues) from oxyhaemoglobin (and goes to the tissues) due to the low (partial) pressure of oxygen that exists there

146
Q

The oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve

A

Helps us understand how haemoglobin in our blood transports + release oxygen showing the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen (in tissues + the lungs) and he % saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen. Higher partial pressure means a higher % saturation of haemoglobin

147
Q

How oxyhaemoglobin dissociation varies between rest and exercise (in the tissues)

A

At rest, haemoglobin only gives up 23% of its oxygen to muscles (so is no longer fully saturated) but this % increases during exercise as the demand for oxygen increases from working muscles so the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin in the blood capillaries to the muscle tissue occurs more readily

148
Q

The Bohr shift

A

When an increase in blood CO2 + a decrease in pH results in a reduction of the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen (the shift to the right on the graph showing the effect of partial pressure of oxygen (mmHg) on the % saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen - an ‘s’ shaped graph)

149
Q

Factors responsible for the increase in the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin (means more oxygen is available for working muscles)

A

Increase in blood temperature, Increase in partial pressure of CO2, Decrease in blood pH (due to more CO2) causes the Bohr shift

150
Q

Vascular shunt mechanism (shunting)

A

The redistribution/redirecting of blood flow (cardiac output) to areas where it’s most needed (e.g. redirecting more blood to working muscles during exercise to meet the increased oxygen demand

151
Q

The effect of exercise on blood distribution

A

During exercise, blood supply to the intestines, kidneys, skeleton, brain and skin increase (from 20-25%, 20%, 3-5%, 15% and 4-5% to 3-5%, 2-4%, 0.5-1%, 3-4% and 1-2% respectively) and blood supply to skeletal muscle increases from 15-20% (about 0.75 of the 5 litres (cardiac output) per min) to 80-85% (about 20 of the 25 litres cardiac output per min) but the blood supply to the cardiac muscle remains the same

152
Q

Why performers should ensure they leave an hour between eating and competing

A

A full gut would mean more blood being directed to the stomach instead of the working muscles, which would mean that the muscles would have less of an oxygen supply (as blood flow to the brain must remain constant to ensure brain function as the brain needs oxygen for energy and the heart requires a good oxygen supply so it can faster + blood goes to the skin as energy is needed to cool the body down), which would have a detrimental effect on performance

153
Q

What controls blood pressure and blood flow (by redistribution of blood)

A

The vasomotor centre, located in the medulla oblongata of the brain, which is stimulated by the different types of receptors

154
Q

How the vasomotor centre redistributes blood

A

Through vasodilation + vasoconstriction (+ the stimulation of sympathetic nerves in the walls of the blood vessels)

155
Q

Vasodilation

A

The widening of the blood vessels to increase the flow of blood into the capillaries e.g. in the arterioles supplying working muscles during exercise to meet the oxygen demand

156
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

The narrowing of the blood vessels to reduce blood flow into the capillaries e.g. in the arterioles supplying non-essential organs (e.g. the intestines and liver) during exercise

157
Q

How stimulation of sympathetic nerves affects blood flow

A

When it increases, it causes vasoconstriction + when it decreases, it causes vasodilation

158
Q

Pre-capillary sphincters

A

They aid blood distribution, They’re tiny rings of muscle located at the opening of capillaries, When they contract, they restrict blood flow through the capillary + when they relax - they increase blood flow e.g. during exercise - capillary networks supplying skeletal muscle will relax pre-capillary sphincters to increase blood flow + saturate the tissues with oxygen

159
Q

Why redistribution of blood is important

A

It increases the oxygen supply to working muscles, It removes waste products from muscles, such as CO2 + lactic acid, It ensures more blood goes to the skin during exercise to regulate body temperature + get rid of heat through radiation, evaporation + sweating,It directs more blood to the heart as it’s a muscle - so requires more oxygen during exercise

160
Q

Arterio-venous difference (A-VO2 diff)

A

The difference between the oxygen content of the arterial blood arriving at the muscles and the venous blood leaving the muscle

161
Q

How arterio-venous difference varies

A

It’s low at rest as not much oxygen is required by the muscles but it’s high during exercise as much more oxygen is needed from the blood for the muscles

162
Q

How changes in arterio-venous difference affect gas exchange at the alveoli

A

If it increases, more oxygen is taken in and more carbon dioxide is removed

163
Q

How training affects arterio-venous difference

A

It increases with trained athletes as they can extract a greater amount of oxygen from the blood

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