4.1.1 Flashcards
(178 cards)
1
Q
What organism causes TB?
A
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
2
Q
What is the transmission of TB?
A
droplets of water in air
released through sneezing and coughing
inhaled by uninfected individual
3
Q
What parts of the world are most likely to get TB?
A
overcrowded
poorly-ventilated
have poor diet/malnutrition
homelessness
eating meat / drinking milk from infected cattle
4
Q
What organism causes bacterial meningitis?
A
bacteria
5
Q
What is the transmission of bacterial meningitis?
A
direct transmission
touch, kissing
6
Q
What organism causes ringrot?
A
bacterium
7
Q
How is ringrot transmitted?
A
through vectors like insects
indirect transmission
8
Q
How do insects spread ringrot?
A
leave spores in the soil
9
Q
What organism causes HIV / AIDS?
A
Virus
10
Q
What does HIV stand for?
A
Human Immunodeficiency virus
11
Q
What does AIDS stand for?
A
Autoimmune deficiency
12
Q
What does HIV/AIDS do to the immune system?
A
destroys T helper cells
13
Q
What happens because T helper cells are killed by HIV/AIDS
A
Resistance to infection is lowered as T helper cells fight infection
14
Q
What organism causes influennza?
A
virus
15
Q
How is influenza transmitted?
A
caused by spread of virus
through air
coughs and sneezes
touching contaminated surfaces
DIRECT and INDIRECT
16
Q
What organism causes Tobacco mosaic virus?
A
Virus
17
Q
How is TMV transmitted?
A
leaves of different plants rubbing together
leaving spores in soil
Direct transmission
18
Q
What organism causes Malaria?
A
vector - female mosquito
19
Q
How is malaria transmitted?
A
mosquito feeds on human by biting them
parasite passes from saliva of female mosquito into blood stream
20
Q
What happens when the plasmodium parasite enters the blood stream?
A
infects hepatocytes and erythrocytes causes disruption to blood flow to vital organs
21
Q
Why do primary defences not prevent the entry of plasmodium?
A
vector breaks the skin so that skin no longer acts as a barrier
plasmodium feeds on blood
22
Q
What organism causes potato/tomato late blight?
A
protoctista
23
Q
How is potato/tomato late blight transmitted?
A
transferred through water eg rain
indirect contact
24
Q
What is ringworm in cattle caused by?
A
fungi
25
How is ring worm spread through cattle?
direct contact through cattle
26
What causes athletes foot?
fungi
27
How is athletes foot transmitted?
direct contact with infection by skin particles left on towels, shoes, floors
28
What is black sigatoka is caused by?
fungus
29
How is black sigatoka transmitted?
spores carried by wind and water
30
Why may people object to using insecticides to get rid of malaria?
destruction of a species is morally wrong
31
What indicates the malarial parasite is not a prokaryote?
has a nucleus
has mitochondria / golgi
linear chromosomes
DNA associated with histones
80S ribosomes
no cell wall
32
What is health?
physical and mental social well-being
good nutrition
suitably housed
free from disease/illness
33
What is disease?
impairment of an organisms normal functioning
malfunctioning of body or mind
symptoms may be physical, mental or social
34
What is a parasite?
an organism that lives in or on and harms the host
35
How does a paraasite harm the host?
take their nutrition
feeds on host
36
Example of parasite?
Plasmodium
37
What is a pathogen?
Micro-organisms that cause disease
38
How do bacteria cause disease?
damaging cell
releasing toxins
39
What speed do bacteria reproduce?
fast
40
What is an example of bacteria?
cholera
41
Where does fungi live?
in the skin
42
What does fungi do to skin?
Sends out reproductive hyphae
they grow out to the surface of the skin and release spores
43
What do viruses do to cells?
invade cells
take over genetic machinery and other organelles of the cell
44
What do protoctista do?
enters host cells and feeds on contents as it grows
45
How does the plasmodium feed on the contents of RBC
IMMATURE FORM THAT FEEDS ON CONTENTS
46
What are some examples of indirect contact?
Vector born
Vehicle born - air, dust, blood, water, food
47
What are some examples of direct contact?
mother to baby through placenta
touching , kissing
48
What polysaccharide is released when plants are attacked as a physical defence?
Callose
49
How fast is callose released?
within minutes
50
Where is callose deposited?
into cell wals
51
What reinforces callose when it is deposited into cell wall?
lignin
52
What is beneficial about callose being reinforced with lignin?
provides a thicker barrier for pathogen to penetrate through
53
What does callose block in the phloem?
sieve tube end plates
54
What does callose do to infected areas?
seals it off
55
What does callose block between infected cells?
plasmodesmata
56
What is beneficial about having Tannins as a chemical defence?
bitter taste
57
What is beneficial about antibacterial compounds being a chemical defence of a plant?
disrupts cell wall/ membranes of bacterua
58
What is an example of an anti-fungal compound?
chitinases
59
What is beneficial about chitinases being a chemical defence?
enzymes released to break down chitin in cell wall
60
What is beneficial about anti-oomycetes being released from plants?
breaks down cell walls on fungi
61
What does the skin act as?
barrier
62
What do skin flora do?
outcompete pathogens
63
What happens to pathogens as a result of skin flora?
no longer alive
64
What does the thi layer of dead cells on skin act as?
barrier to pathogens
65
What is beneficil about sebum on skin?
prevents pathogen growth
66
What do goblet cells line?
Airways
lungs
digestive systems
67
What do goblet cells do?
trap microorganisms
68
What happens to microorganisms trapped by goblet cells?
destroyed by phagocytes and lysozyme
69
What is a primary defence in the stomach?
HCL
70
What is a primary defence in our ears?
wax
71
What is a primary defence in our eyes?
lysozyme
72
What primary defences are in the female reproductive system ?
acidic conditions
73
What are histamines released by?
mast cellsW
74
What do histamines do?
detect infection
75
What does histamine do to arterioles?
dilate
76
What does arteriole dilation cause?
localised heat and redness
77
What does the inc in temp do to histamines?
prevents pathogens from reproducing
78
What will histamines do to the capillaries?
make them more leaky
79
What does making capillaries more leaky cause?
more tissue fluid to form
(swelling)
80
What 2 things does swelling cause to happen?
more WBC to be brung to that area
morefluid enters lymphatic system
81
What do cytokines do?
attract more phagocytes to infected area
82
Why do cytokines attract more phagocytes to the infected area?
so cytokines can dispose of them by phagocytosis
83
What is excess tissue fluid drained into?
lymphatic system
84
What will pathogens enter before being transported to lymph nodes?
lymph
85
What will pathogens be transpirted to after entering the lymph?
lymph nodes
86
What happens when lymph nodes swell?
produces phagocytes and lymphocytes
87
What are expulsive reflexes?
coughing
sneezing
88
What is a non-specific defence mechanism?
Response is immediate and the same for all pathogens
89
What is a specific defence-mechanism?
Response is slower and is specific to each pathogen
90
What are 2 non-specific defence mechanisms?
Physical barrier
Phagocytoss
91
What are 2 specific defence mechanisms?
Cell-mediated response
Hummoral response
92
What is engulfed in phagocytosis?
pathogen
93
What is formed when the pathogen is engulfed?
Phagosome
94
What moves towards the phagosome?
lysosomes
95
What do hydrolytic enzymes do to the pathogen?
break it down
96
What happens to harmless products in phagocytosis?
absorbed into cytoplasm
97
What is formed at the end of phagocytosis?
Antigen presenting cell
98
Outline phagocytosis?
Pathogen enguled
Phagosome formed
Lysosomes fuse with phagososme
Lysins break down pathogen by hydrolysis
Harmless products absorbed into cytoplasm
APC formed
99
What are cytokines released from?
T helper cells
100
What deos cytokines trigger?
clonal expansion of B cells
101
What do opsonins do?
process by which an antibody binds to another substance
102
What shape nucleus do neutrophils have?
lobed
103
What nucleus do lymphovytes have?
spherical
104
What structure do erythrocytes have?
biconcave
105
What structure do erythrocytes have?
biconcave
106
Whst shaped nucleus do phagocytes have?
lobed
107
Explain how phagocytes, such as those shown in Fig. 3.1, are able to pass from the
blood into the tissue fluid.
lobed / narrow , nucleus ;
(cells) can change shape ;
can squeeze / move / fit / AW , between cells
/ through pores , in (walls of) capillaries ;
histamine makes , capillary walls /
endothelium , leaky ;
108
What structure do monocytes have?
unilobular nuelci
109
What is an immune response?
response to an antigen
Involves lymphocytes / production of antibodies
110
What is special about the receptors on the T helper cell?
they are specific and complimentary to the APC's antigens
111
What is clonal selection?
T helper cell identifies a foreign antigen from a foreign pathogen in the body
112
What happens after clonal selection in cell-mediated response?
clonal expansion
113
What cell undergoes clonal expansion in cell-mediated response??
T helper cell
114
What process happens during clonal expansion in cell-mediated response? ?q
mitosis
115
What 4 cells does clonal expansion produce in cell-mediated response??
T helper cells
T killer cells
T memory cells
T regulatory cells
116
What is the cell-mediated response?
T helper cell's receptors identify the antigens on the APC as foreign.
T helper cell undergoes clonal expansion by mitosis
4 cell types produced
T helper
T killer
T memory
T regulatory
117
What type of cell is used in cell mediated response?
T cells
118
What does the T helper cell do in the hummoral response?
undergoes clonal expansion after receptors identify foreign antigen on APC
119
What chemicals does the T helper cells release in the hummoral response?
interleukins
cytokines
120
What cells undergo clonal expansion in hummoral response?
B cells
121
What is clonal expansion?
cells differentiate into other cell types
122
What cells are produced in clonal expansion in the hummoral response?
B memory cells
Plasma cells
123
Why are plasma cells useful?
make antibodies
124
Why are B memory cells useful?
Allows immune system tor rememeber previous antigens so antibodies can be produced quiclker
125
Why are T helper cells useful?
identify antigens
126
Why are T killer cells sueful?
kill our own body cells that have been infected
127
Why are T memory cells useful?
allows body to recognise the same antigen so antibodies can be quixkl produced
128
Why are T regulatory cells useful?
suppresses immune system
maintain homeostasis
prevents autoimmune disease
129
Which response primary or secondary will generate the most antibodies?
secondary
130
Why is the secondayr immune response shorter and quicker than primary?
no memory cells in primary
(T and B)
clonal selection and expansion occur quicker in secondary
more plasma cells
so more antibodies being made
131
What is herd vaccination?
high % of people have immunity
132
What is ring vaccination?
most vulnerable are protected
133
What molecule is an antibody?
protein
134
How many polypeptide chains in an antibody?
4
135
How many light and heavy polypeptide chains?
2 light and 2 heavy
136
How does the structure of an antibody relate to it's function?
2 light chains and 2 heavy chains / 4 polypeptide
chains ;
variable region allows , binding / attachment , to
antigen ;
two variable regions allow binding of more than
one (of the same) antigen ;
variable region on different antibodies allows specificity
to different antigens ;
constant region allows , recognition by / attachment to /
binding to , (named) phagocytes ;
hinge (region) allows flexibility ;
disulfide , bonds / bridges , hold , polypeptides / light
and heavy chains , together ;
137
What is special about the variable region on an antibody?
complimenary and specific to an antigen
138
What is the role of the hinge region?
allows antibody to bind to more than 1 antigen or pathogen
139
What does the constant region allow?
allows antibodies to find phagocytes
140
Whateffect does opsonins have on phagocytosis?
inc chance
141
Why do opsonins inc chance of phagocytosis?
antibody can bind o both pathogen and phagocyte
142
What is agglutination?
pathogens clump together
143
Why does agglutination happen?
makes pathogens too large to enter the host cell and increases the likelihood of phagocytosis
144
What is neutralisation?
antibodies cover binding sites on the pathogen or bind to toxins
145
Why do antibodies cover binding sites on the pathogen or bind to toxins?
prevent binding or entry into the host cell
146
How is artificial immunity achieved?
MAN-MADE
USUALLY THROUGH INJECTIONS
147
wHAT IS NATURAL IMMUNITY?
NATURAL CAUSE CATCHING A DISEASE
148
What is pasive immuniuty ?
does not trigger an immune response
149
What is active immunity?
does trigger an immune response
150
What is an example of natural passive immunity?
antibodies provided by the placenta or by breast milk
allows the baby to be immune to diseases that the mother is immune to
151
What is an example of artificial passive immunity?
an injecction of antibodies made by another individual
152
What is an example of natural active immunity?
being infected by or sufferig suffering from a disease
causing body to produce antibodies and make mmroy cells
153
What is artificial active immunity?
weakened or dead pathogen introduced by vaccination
154
What is an autoimmune disease?
abnormal immune response
against tissues normally in the body
155
156
How does the autoimmune disease treat self-cells?
unable to recognise them as self
treats them as foreign
157
What is lupus?
immune system attacks healthy cells
effects connective tissues/joints/skins
158
What does rheumatoid athritis attack?
joints
159
Where are the joins that athritis attacks?
hands
wrists
feet
ankles
160
What are the symptoms of lupus and athritis?
pain inflammation fatigue
161
How to treat lupus and athritis?
pain killers
anti-inflammatories
steroids
immuno-supressants
162
What is type 1 diabetes?
attack insulin secreting beta cells of the pancreas
163
How can type 1 diabetes be treated?
insulin injections
pancreatic transplant
immunosupressants
164
What vaccinations prevent?
epidemics
165
Why is beneficial to vaccinate the population?
so that there is little impact on the economy (people can work)
cheaper to prevent a disease than treat an ill person
166
Why are new vaccines generated each year?
different strains of the virus
different strains have different antigens
antibody produced needs to match the new antigen
167
Why is it important to maintain biodiversity?
inc gene pool
pop more likely to withstand a change
source of potential medi
168
How can pharmacogenetics be used to treat ill people?
predicts an organisms response to medical drugs by studying their genome
169
What is MRSA?
a type of bacteria that is resistant to severly widely used antibiotics
170
What is harder to treat MRSA infection or bacterial infections?
MRSA
171
How have resistant strands of bacteria evolved?
genetic variation within population
172
What happens when a random mutation arises?
gives rise to antibiotic resistance allele
173
What is the selection pressure of the bacteria?
antibiotics
174
What happens to the allele coding for antibiotic resistance?
allele passed onto offspring
175
What happens to allele frequency over many generations?
inc
176
How does bcteria become resistant?
variety ofbacteria
bathed in antibiotics
most normal bacteria die
resitant bacteria multiply and become more common
entire infection evolves into resistant strain
177
What type of organism can have an immune response?
multicellullar
178
