A & P (Ch. 42-46) Flashcards
(250 cards)
1
Q
Structure of Urinary System
A
- kidneys (2)
- ureters (2)
- bladder
- urethra
2
Q
Are the kidneys intraperitoneal or retroperitoneal?
A
-retroperitoneal
3
Q
Which kidney is higher?
A
-left
4
Q
Which kidney is larger?
A
-left
5
Q
Renal Fascia
A
-anchors kidneys to surrounding structures
6
Q
Renal Fat Pad
A
-cushion of fat surrounding each kidney
7
Q
Hilum
A
-concave notch in an organ where vessels and other structures enter
8
Q
Renal Cortex
A
-outer portion
9
Q
Renal Medulla
A
-inner portion
10
Q
Renal Pyramids
A
-triangular divisions of medulla
11
Q
Renal Papilla
A
- narrow, innermost end of pyramid
- releases urine through multiple ducts
12
Q
Renal Columns
A
-where cortical tissue dips into medulla between pyramids
13
Q
Calyces (major and minor)
A
- cuplike structure
- collects urine from renal papilla
- minor calyces flow into major calyces
14
Q
Renal Pelvis
A
-expansion of upper end of ureter
15
Q
What do renal arteries branch into before entering the kidney?
A
-segmental arteries
16
Q
What do the segmental arteries branch into?
A
-lobar arteries
17
Q
What do lobar arteries branch into?
A
- interlobar arteries
- extend towards cortex
18
Q
Which arteries extend towards the renal cortex and form the arcuate arteries?
A
-interlobar arteries
19
Q
What do the arcuate arteries branch into?
A
-interlobular arteries
20
Q
What is the microscopic unit of the kidneys?
A
-nephron
21
Q
What are the afferent arterioles that carry blood to the nephrons?
A
-afferent arterioles
22
Q
How long are the ureters?
A
30cm
23
Q
Where do the ureters run from?
A
-renal pelvis to bladder (trigone)
24
Q
3 Layers of Ureters
A
1) mucus lining
2) muscular wall (peristalsis)
3) fibrous outer layer
25
Wall of Urinary Bladder
- smooth muscle
| - fibres in all directions
26
Rugae
-folds in the mucus membrane of stomach
27
Trigone
- 2 ureters
| - 1 urethra
28
Where is the bladder in females?
-anterior to uterus
29
Where is the bladder in males?
-rests on prostate
30
Function of Bladder
- reservoir for urine
| - expels urine (aided by urethra)
31
Where does the urethra run from?
-floor of bladder to urinary meatus
32
What does the mucous membrane of the urethra allow for?
-UTI's to move up
33
How long is the female urethra?
3cm
34
Male Urethra
- 20cm
- also part of reproductive system
- passes through prostate gland
35
Micturition
-aka: urination, voiding, emptying the bladder
36
At what volume does urination usually occur?
300 to 400 ml
37
How much urine can the adult bladder hold?
500 to 1000 ml
38
Urinary Retention
-urine produced in kidneys, but not voided from bladder
39
Urinary Suppression
-no urine produced in kidneys, but bladder is normal
40
Incontinuence
- urine voided involuntarily
- may be caused by spinal injury, stroke or age related
- can be treated
- may cause cystitis
41
Cystitis
- bladder infection
- amounts voided are small
- extreme urgency/frequency
- painful urination
42
Intestinal Cystitis
- overactive bladder
- not due to infection
- extreme urgency/frequency
- amounts voided are small
- can be treated
43
Nephron=
renal corpuscle + renal tubule
44
What does the nephron do?
-filters blood
45
How many nephrons are in each kidney?
-greater than 1 million
46
2 Main Parts of a Nephron
- renal corpuscle
| - renal tubule
47
What is the 1st part of the nephron?
-renal corpuscle
48
Bowman's Capsule
- cup shaped mouth of nephron
| - surrounds glomerulus
49
Glomerulus
- network of very fine blood capillaries
| - high BP in glomerural capillaries required to filter wastes of blood
50
Walls of Nephron
-simple cuboidal and simple squamous epithelium
51
Where does a nephron run from?
-renal corpuscle to collecting tubule
52
What regulates tubule function and growth?
-cilia
53
Renal Tubule=
```
proximal convoluted tubule
+
loop of henle
+
distal convoluted tubule
+
collecting tubule
```
54
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
- 1st segment off of bowman's capsule
| - twisty tube
55
Henle Loop
- thin distending limb with a hairpin turn, then ascending limb
- affects concentration of urine
56
Distal Convoluted Tubule
- last segment
- twisty tube
- contracts juxtaglomerural apparatus
- joins collecting tubule
57
Collecting Tubule
-straight extension of the renal tubule of several nephrons (minor calyx)
58
Which nephron components are in the medulla?
- loop of henle
| - collecting tubule
59
Which nephron components are in the cortex?
- renal corpuscle
- proximal convoluted tubule
- distal convolutes tubule
60
Flow of Urine from Nephron to Urethra
- collecting tubules
- pyramids
- calyx
- renal pelvis
- ureter
- bladder
- urethra
61
3 Step Process of the Formation of Urine
1) filtration
2) reabsorption
3) secretion
62
What is the 1st step of the formation of urine?
-filtration
63
Where does the filtration of urine happen?
- renal corpuscle
| - continually happening
64
What is the normal glomerural filtration rate?
125ml/min
180L glomerural filtrate/day
65
What is the 2nd step in the filtration of urine?
-reabsorption
66
Reabsorption
-movement of substances out of filtrate/urine to blood
67
How does reabsorption occur?
-passive and active transport
68
Which direction does absorption of urine happen?
-renal tubules to peritubular capillaries
69
What does reabsorption prevent?
-loss of substances that the body needs
70
What substances are reabsorbed via active and passive transport?
- water
- glucose
- amino acids
- urea Na+
- Cl-
71
Where does reabsorption occur?
- proximal convoluted tubule (mostly)
| - some in the renal tubules
72
How is water from the 180L/day of glomerural filtrate reabsorbed into the blood?
-osmosis from proximal tubules
73
What is the 3rd step of the formation of urine?
-secretion
74
What is secretion?
- opposite of reabsorption
| - movement of substances from blood into peritubular capillaries (urine forming in distal and collecting tubules)
75
How are H+ and K+ secreted?
-active transport
76
How is ammonia secreted?
-diffusion
77
The secretion of ___ is critical for pH (acid/alkaline) balance.
H+
78
What does the regulation of urine volume depend on?
-the amount of water and dissolved substances (salt) reabsorbed by convoluted tubules
79
What influences the regulation of urine volume?
- antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
- aldosterone
- atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH)
80
What does ADH influence?
- water absorption
- retains water (reduces water loss)
- decreases urine volume
81
Where is ADH produced?
-hypothalamus
82
What secretes ADH?
-posterior pituitary
83
What is aldosterone secreted by?
-adrenal cortex
84
Where is ANH (atrial natriuretic hormone) secreted?
-by atrial wall
85
What does ANH stimulate?
- tubules to secrete more sodium into urine
- water follows
- increased urine formation
86
ANH
-salt and water LOSING hormone
87
Aldosterone
-salt and water RETAINING hormone
88
What % of urine is water?
95%
89
How many litres of urine are excreted each day (24hrs)?
1-2 L
90
What colour should urine be?
- amber yellow
| - clear (not cloudy)
91
What is the normal pH or urine?
6 (changes with diet)
92
Normal Characteristics of Urine
- amount
- colour/clarity
- pH
- specific gravity
93
What is the normal specific gravity (chemical particles) in urine?
1.005 to 1.030
94
What does a measurement outside of the normal specific gravity of urine indicate?
- dehydration
- diabetes
- heart or kidney failure
- infection
95
Anuria
-absense of urine
96
Oliguria
-small amounts of urine
97
Polyuria
-lg amounts of urine
98
What does functioning of the reproductive system ensure?
-survival of the genetic characteristics of a species
99
Male and female parented contribute ___ of their genetic material to create offspring.
-half
100
What is the function of the male reproductive system?
-to produce, transfer and introduce mature sperm into the female reproductive tract where fertilization can occur
101
2 Classifications of Male Reproductive Organs
1) essential organs
| 2) accessory organs
102
Essential Organs
-produce gametes (sex cells)
103
Accessory Organs
-support reproductive process
104
Essential Male Reproductive Organs
-testes
105
Accessory Male Reproductive Organs
```
Reproductive Ducts
-epididymis
-vas deferens
-ejaculatory duct
urethra
```
Accessory Glands
- seminal vesicles
- bulbourethral glands, prostate
Supporting Structures
- scrotum
- penis
- spermatic cords
106
Shape and Location of Perineum
- diamond shaped area between thighs
| - extends anteriorly from pubic symphysis to coccyx posteriorly
107
What is the lateral boundary of the perineum?
-ischial tuberosity
108
What is the perineum divided into?
- urogenital triangle
| - anal triangle
109
How long are the testes?
4 to 5 cm
110
What are the testes located in?
-scrotum
111
Size and Shape of Testes
-small, ovoid glands
112
What are the testes suspended by?
-in scrotum by scrotal tissue and spermatic cords (which carry blood vessels to testis)
113
What are the testes encased by?
-tunica albuginea (dense fibrous capsule)
114
What does the tunica albuginea divide into?
- lobules (sections that penetrate the testes)
| - 200 or more
115
What do lobules contain?
- interstitual cells (leading cells)
| - 1 to 3 seminiferous tubules
116
How long would seminiferous tubules be in elongated?
-2 ft
117
What does the testes consist of?
- seminiferous tubules
- interstitual (leydig) cells
- spermatogenic cells
- sustenacular/nurse/Sertoli cells
118
Spermatogenic Cells
-produce sperm
119
Interstitual (leydig) Cells
-endocrine cells between the seminiferous tubules
120
Sustentacular/Nurse/Sertoli Cells
-support and regulate sperm producing functions of the testes
121
2 Main Functions of the Testes
1) spermatogenesis
| 2) secretion of hormones by interstitial cells
122
Spermatogenesis
-formation of mature male gametes (spermatozoa) by the seminiferous tubules
123
What is spermatogenesis stimulated by?
- FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) from anterior pituitary gland
- also GnRH and LH
124
Hormones Secreted by Interstitial Cells (testes)
- testosterone
- inhibin
- estrogen
125
Testosterone
- major androgen (maleness hormone)
| - steroid hormone
126
What is testosterone produced by?
-interstitial cells
127
What is testosterone regulated by?
-LH from anterior pituitary gland
128
Function of Testosterone
- multiple funcitons
- most important: promoting development/maintenance of accessory organs and primary and secondary male sexual characteristics
129
Inhibit
- inhibits release of FSH by anterior pituitary gland
| - allowing testis to have some control over spermatogenesis
130
Estrogen
- small amounts secreted by interstitial cells, liver, etc.
| - role in males is uncertain (may influence sperm)
131
Structure of Testes
-head (covered by acrosome or acrosomal cap), neck, mid piece and tail
132
Function of Testes
-sperm nucleus unites with egg nucleus to form first cell of new offspring
133
How long are the epididymis'?
-6 m (but tightly coiled)
134
What is the epididymis enclosed by?
-fibrous casing
135
Where is the epididymis located?
-top and side of each testis
136
Divisions of Epididymis
- head
- body
- tail
137
Functions of Epididymis
- ducts for seminal fluid (semen)
- secretes small parts of semen
- sperm become capable of motility while they are passing through epididymis
- maturation area for sperm
138
How long does sperm stay in the epididymis to mature?
1 to 3 weeks
139
Vas Deferens
- thick, muscular walled tube
- extends from epididymis tail
- ascends from scrotum, through inguinal canal (spermatic cord), into abd cavity where it extends over the top and down the posterior surface of bladder
140
Ampulla of Vas Deferens
- enlarged terminal portion
| - joins ducts of seminal vesicles
141
What connects the epididymis with the ejaculatory duct?
-vas deferens
142
Function of Vas Deferens
- excretory duct for semen (muscular layers help propel sperm through the male duct system)
- storage area for sperm
143
What duct is severed during a vasectomy?
-vas deferens
144
Where do ejaculatory ducts pass through?
- prostate gland
| - terminating in urethra
145
Ejaculatory Ducts
-short tubes (1cm)
146
What forms the ejaculatory ducts?
-union of the vas deferens with duct from the seminal vesicle
147
Structure of Seminal Vesicles
-high convoluted tubules
148
How long are the seminal vesicles?
5 to 7 cm
149
Where are the seminal vesicles?
-posterior surface of bladder
150
Function of Seminal Vesicles
-secrete alkaline, viscous, nutrient rich part of semen (60% of semen volume)
151
Shape of Prostate Gland
-donut
152
Location of Prostate Gland
-encircles urethra just below bladder
153
Function of Prostate Gland
-adds slightly acidic, water/milky looking secretion to seminal fluid (30% of semen volume)
154
Bulbourethral Glands
- small, pea shaped
| - have ducts leading into urethra
155
What do the bulbourethral glands secrete?
-alkaline fluid (part of semen)
156
Where are the bulbourethral glands?
-below prostate gland
157
What divides the scrotum?
-septum
158
Scrotum
-skin covered pouch suspended from perineal region where the testes descend to near birth
159
What is in the scrotum?
- testes
- epididymis
- lower part of spermatic cord
160
Function of Scrotum
-to ensure testes are maintained at a slightly lower temp than the normal body temp (3 degrees lower) for sperm production
161
Cremaster Muscles
-elevate scrotal pouch if necessary
162
Structure of Penis
-3 cylindrical masses of erectile tissue (1 contains urethra)
163
Function of Penis
- contains urethral (dural tract for urinary and reproductive systems)
- copulatory organ during sexual intercourse
164
Internal Spermatic Cords
-fibrous cylinders in inguinal canals
165
What are the internal spermatic cords enclosed by?
-seminal ducts, blood vessels, emphatics and nerves
166
How many sperm does each mm of seminal fluid contain?
-millions
167
Where does seminal fluid pass?
- testes
- epididymis
- vas deferens
- ejaculatory duct
- urethra
168
Functional Sterility
-sperm count of less than 25 million/ml of semen
169
When does male fertility begin?
- puberty
| - extends into old age
170
Immune Infertility
-antibodies made against their own sperm
171
What does male fertility relate to?
- number
- size
- shape
- motility of sperm
172
When do reproductive functions begin?
-puberty
173
When does development of organs begin?
-before birth
174
When do the immature testes descend into scrotum?
-before or shortly after birth
175
Puberty
-high levels of hormones stimulate final stages of development
176
Late Adulthood
-gradual decline in hormone production may decrease sexual appetite and fertility
177
Function of Female Reproductive System
- produce offspring/ensure continuity of genetic code
- produce eggs (female gametes) which have the potential to unite with a male gamete to form the 1st cell of offspring
- provide nutrition and protection to the offspring for several years after conception
178
Essential Female Reproductive Organs
- ovaries
| - gametes (ova produced by ovaries)
179
Accessory Female Reproductive Organs
- ducts/duct structures from ovaries (exterior)
| - external genitals (vulva)
180
Additional Female Sex Glands
-mammary glands
181
Perineum
- skin covered region between the vaginal orifice and the rectum
- may be torn during childbirth
182
Ovaries
- nodular glands located on each side of the uterus, below and behind the uterine tubes
- endocrine organs that secrete female sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
183
Ectopic Pregnancy
-development of the fetus in a place other than the uterus
184
What is the surface of ovaries covered by?
-germinal epithelium
185
What do ovarian follicles contain?
-developing female sex cells
186
Ovum
-an oocyte released from the ovary
187
What produces ova?
-female gametes
188
Oogenesis
-process that results in formation of a mature egg
189
Uterus
- pear shaped
| - fundus, body, cervix
190
Where is the uterus?
- pelvic cavity
| - between urinary bladder and rectum
191
What may alter the uterus?
- age
- pregnancy
- distension of related pelvic viscera
192
Where does the uterus descend to between birth and puberty?
-lower abd to true pelvis
193
When does the uterus begin to decrease in size?
-menopause
194
Uterus Position
- flexed over bladder
| - points down and backward (joining vagina at Rt angle)
195
What holds the uterus in place?
- ligaments
| - still allow some movement
196
Prolapsed Uterus
-weakening of the supporting ligaments of the uterus allows the uterus to tilt backward and slide down the vagina
197
3 Layers of Uterus Wall
1) endometrium (inner)
2) myometrium (middle)
3) perimetrium (outer)
198
Endometrium
- 3 layered mucous membrane
- 2 slough off during menstruation and after delivery
- rich blood supply
199
Myometrium
- thick, middle layer
- smooth muscle
- 3 layers: longitudinal, circular, oblique
200
Perimetrium
- outer serosa
- part of parietal peritoneum
- incomplete
- covers only part of uterine body
- doesn't cover cervix
201
What part of the reproductive tract facilitates sperm ascending toward the uterine tubes?
-uterus
202
If conception doesn't occur, how many layers of endometrium are shed during menstruation?
- 2 or 3
| - allows endometrium to renew itself (menstrual cycle)
203
How is an embryo supplied with nutrients?
- placenta
| - exchange of materials between mother's blood and the fetal blood (keeps 2 circulations separate)
204
What helps during labour to push offspring out of mother's body?
-myometrial contractions
205
What are other names for the fallopian tubes?
- uterine tubes
| - oviducts
206
What do uterine tubes consist of?
- mucous
- smooth muscle
- serous lining
207
What is the mucosal lining of the uterine tubes continuous with?
-peritoneum lining the pelvic cavity
208
How would the tubal mucous be infected by an organism introduced into the vagina?
-it is continuous with that of the vagina and uterus
209
What could inflammation of uterine tubes lead to?
-scarring that leads to closure of lumen
210
What do uterine tubes serve as?
- transport channels for ova
| - fertilization
211
Where is the vagina located?
-between rectum, urethra and bladder
212
Vagina
- tubular
- collapsable organ
- capable of distension
- smooth muscles
- lines with mucous membrane
213
Hymen
-mucous membrane that forms a border around the vagina in young premenstrual girls
214
Function of Vagina
- lining lubricates and stimulates penis during intercourse
- receptacle for semen
- transports tissue and blood shed during menstruation to the exterior
215
What is the lower portion of the birth canal?
-vagina
216
Female External Genitals
- mons pubis
- labia majora
- labia minora
- clitoris
- urinary meatus
- vaginal orifice
- greater vestibular glands
217
What protects the clitoris and vestibule?
- mons pubis
| - labia
218
What do the sensory receptors of the clitoris do?
-send info to the sexual response area of the brain
219
Urinary Meatus
-external opening of urethra
220
What is the boundary between the internal and external genitals?
-vaginal orifice
221
Greater Vestibular Glands (bartholin glands)
- 1 on each side of vaginal orifice
- secrete mucus to lubricate the vagina
- can get infected
222
Female Reproductive Cycle
- ovarian
- endometrial/menstrual
- myometrial
- gonadotropic
223
4 Phases of Endometrial/Menstrual Cycle
- menses
- postmenstrual phase
- ovulation
- premenstrual phase
224
2 Primary Functions of Ovarian Cycle
1) produce ova at regular intervals
| 2) regulate the endometrial cycle through estrogen and progesterone
225
What are the 4 phases of the endometrial/menstrual cycle based on?
-28 day cycle
226
Menses Phase of Menstrual Cycle
- occurs around day 1 to 5 of new cycle
- outer 2 layers of endometrium slough off
- 30 to 100ml of discharge (most during first 3 days)
227
Postmenstrual Phase of Menstrual Cycle
- between the end of menses and ovulation (day 6 to 13)
- developing follicles secrete lg amounts of estrogen
- endometrial cells proliferate
228
Ovulation Phase of Menstrual Cycle
- day 14
| - mature follicle ruptures and releases ovum
229
Premenstrual Phase of Menstrual Cycle
- between ovulation and onset of menses (day 15 to 28)
| - corpus luteum secretes mostly progesterone
230
Function of Endometrial Cycle
-makes uterus suitable for implantation of new offspring
231
What makes women fertile for only a few days each month?
- cyclical nature of reproductive system
| - the fact that fertilization occurs within 24 hrs of ovulation
232
Myometrial Cycle
- myometrium contracts mildly and with increasing frequency during the 2 weeks leading up to ovulation
- contractions decrease/stop to avoid the risk of expelling a potentially fertilized and implanted egg
233
Gonadotropic Cycle
- occurs throughout the female reproductive cycle
- refers to the cyclical secretion of FSH and LH (gonadotropin) from the anterior pituitary gland (influences the female reproductive cycles)
234
What controls cyclical changes of the female reproductive cycles?
- hormones
| - changes in estrogen and progesterone
235
What do low levels of FSH and LH cause?
-regression of the corpus luteum
236
What happens if pregnancy doesn't occur?
- decrease in estrogen and progesterone
| - triggers endometrial sloughing of the menstrual phase
237
What is the control of cyclical changes in gonadotropin secretion caused by?
- positive and negative feedback mechanisms
| - involves: estrogen, progesterone and secretion of releasing hormones by the hypothalamus
238
Infertility
-faulure to conceive after 1 year of regular unprotected intercourse
239
When does the menstrual cycle begin and end?
- begins at puberty
- continues for about 3 decades (except during pregnancy)
- ends during menopause (40 to 55 years of age)
240
Where are the breasts located?
-over pectoral muscles
241
What is breast development controlled by?
- estrogen
| - progesterone
242
What is the size of breasts determines by?
-fat around glandular tissue
243
What part of breast's produce milk?
- alveoli of mammary gland
| - system of lactiferous ducts carries it to nipple
244
What are the several breast lobes separated by?
-septa of CT
245
What do breast lobes consist of?
- several lobules composed of CT
| - embedded with pouches of milk secreting cells (alveoli)
246
What does the lactiferous duct of each lobe converge toward?
-nipple
247
What helps support the breast?
-suspensory ligaments
248
What is the function of the mammary gland?
-lactation
249
Mechanisms of Lactaction
- ovarian hormone makes the breasts structurally ready to produce milk
- shedding of placenta results in a decrease of estrogen (stimulates prolactin)
- prolactin stimulates lactation
250
What is an additional hormone that also supports lactation?
-oxytocin
