Cardio

Question 1

What is serum

Answer 1

plasma sans clotting factor

Question 2

what is haematocrit?

Answer 2

proportion of blood that is RBC

Question 3

types of leukocytes

Answer 3

monocytes 
lymphocytes 
basophils 
eosinophils 
neutrophils

Question 4

types of granulocytes

Answer 4

basophils
eosinophils
neutrophils

Question 5

types of agranulocytes

Answer 5

monocytes

lymphocytes

Question 6

What leukocyte produces histamine and is responsible for anaphylaxis

Answer 6

basophils

Question 7

name 2 phagocytosing leukocytes

Answer 7

monocytes and neutrophils

Question 8

do platelets have a nucleus?

Answer 8

no

Question 9

what induces platelet production?

Answer 9

thrombopoietin

Question 10

what cells produce platelets

Answer 10

megakaryocytes

Question 11

what is haemostasis

Answer 11

prevention and stopping of bleeding

Question 12

what occurs in primary haemostasis

Answer 12

formation of platelet plug

injury>adhesion>activation>aggregation

Question 13

what is secondary haemostasis?

Answer 13

coagulation cascade

fibrin clot formation

Question 14

what occurs at the site of intravascular endothelium damage?

Answer 14

endothelin mediated vasoconstriction at injury site to limit blood loss

Question 15

what occurs during platelet adhesion?

Answer 15

platelet GP1B receptor binds von willebrand’s factor on exposed basement membrane collagen

Question 16

what is platelet activation?

Answer 16

after binding to subendothelium platelets:

• Change shape to increase surface area
• Release alpha and electron dense granules

Question 17

What factors are in platelet alpha granules

Answer 17

Thromboxane A2
Fibrinogen
Fibrin stabilising factor

Question 18

what is in the electron-dense granules released by activated platelets?

Answer 18

ADP
Ca2+
Serotonin

Question 19

What occurs during platelet aggregation phase?

Answer 19

platelets bind together using GP2b/3a receptors and fibrinogen

Question 20

that is an autologous blood transfusion?

Answer 20

transfusion of patients own blood

Question 21

How is cross matching performed in blood transfusion?

Answer 21

mix donor blood with patient serum and observe if there is a reaction

Question 22

what is rhesus factor

Answer 22

blood factor eg O+ vs O-

Question 23

what embryologic structures gives rise to the ventricles?

Answer 23

bulbus cordis

primordial ventricle

Question 24

what does the truncus arteriosus give rise to?

Answer 24

ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk

Question 25

in development what is the order of the primitive heart tube compartments

Answer 25

``` truncus arteriosus bulbus cordis primitive ventricle primitive atrium sinus venosus ```

Question 26

what is septation

Answer 26

formation of the heart septum and folding to look more like heart

Question 27

when do aortic arches appear

Answer 27

weeks 4-6

Question 28

which aortic arch becomes carotid arteries

Answer 28

3

Question 29

which aortic arch becomes the pulmonary artery and which becomes the aortic arch

Answer 29

6 - pulmonary | 4 - aortic arch

Question 30

how does sympathetic stimulation effect pacemaker cells

Answer 30

noradrenaline - increases Ca2+ channel opening = faster depolarization

Question 31

how does vagal stimulation of pace maker cells effect the heart

Answer 31

ACh causes hyperpolarization by activating potassium channels. delays reaching threshold for calcium channel opening.

Question 32

which ECG lead gives the standard wave pattern

Answer 32

lead 2 | right arm to left leg

Question 33

what is afterload

Answer 33

force the ventricle must overcome to pump blood - closely related to aortic pressure

Question 34

how does afterload effect stroke volume

Answer 34

indirectly proportional | high afterload = low stroke volume

Question 35

what is preload

Answer 35

ventricular wall stress at the start of systole

Question 36

how are preload and afterload related

Answer 36

increased afterload with subsequently increase preload as a high afterload will lower the proportion of blood ejected increasing the end systolic volume causing ^blood volume in the ventricles.

Question 37

how can you calculate MAP

Answer 37

1/3 pulse pressure + diastolic pressure

Question 38

how do you calculate TPR

Answer 38

8*viscosity*vessel length ---------------------------------------- radius^4

Question 39

how is BP controlled intrinsically

Answer 39

local constriction based on stretch of smooth muscle local vasoconstrictor and dilator release nervous input

Question 40

how is BP controlled extrinsically

Answer 40

hormones eg RASS, adrenaline, ADH | Carotid sinus baroreceptors

Question 41

what is the carotid sinus and carotid body

Answer 41

sinus is for pressure | body is for chemicals

Question 42

what innervates the carotid sinus

Answer 42

glossopharyngeal IX

Question 43

what are the layers of the pericardium

Answer 43

fibrous outer and serous inner serous = parietal and visceral layers visceral layers always on organs

Question 44

what arises from the right coronary artery

Answer 44

right marginal | posterior interventricular

Question 45

what does the posterior interventricular artery supply

Answer 45

posterior 1/3 of septum and AVN

Question 46

name the branches of the left coronary artery

Answer 46

left coronary > left anterior descending > diagonal | left coronary > circumflex > marginal

Question 47

what is the blood supply to the SAN

Answer 47

60% right coronary | 40% left coronary

Question 48

what is the origin of the phrenic nerve

Answer 48

c3-5

Question 49

what are the layers of an artery

Answer 49

``` out to in adventitia external elastic lamina media internal elastic lamia intima basement membrane endothelium ```

Question 50

differences between large arteries and veins?

Answer 50

arteries have a thick tunica media with 40-70 layers of elastic membranes with smooth muscle large veins have thicker tunica intima and well developed longitudinal smooth muscle

Question 51

what vessels have valves?

Answer 51

veins venules lymphatic vessels

Question 52

standard right heart and pulmonary circulation pressure

Answer 52

20/8 mmHg

Question 53

cardiac output calculated by?

Answer 53

Stroke volume X Heart rate

Question 54

What effects stroke volume

Answer 54

preload afterload contractility heart rate

Question 55

what units are preload and afterload measured

Answer 55

mmHg

Question 56

What is inotropy

Answer 56

force of heart contraction

Question 57

name a positive inotropic factor

Answer 57

adrenaline thyroxine digoxin

Question 58

name a negatively inotropic drug

Answer 58

beta blockers

Question 59

normal HR

Answer 59

60-100

Question 60

is an increase in HR proportional to an increase in CO?

Answer 60

no as diastole shortens so less preload

Question 61

what is the basis of frank starlings law

Answer 61

stretch of muscle causes stretch mediated calcium channels to open increasing contraction force

Question 62

how do pacemaker cells fire spontaneously

Answer 62

- sodium channels that open due to hyperpolarization (neg charge) - voltage gated calcium t channels open at threshold - influx of Ca2+ causes depolarization - restored by K+ efflux

Question 63

What does beta 1 receptor stimulation in the heart do? what stimulates them?

Answer 63

Noradrenaline causes increase Ca2+ channel opening increasing depolarization rate

Question 64

What does muscarinic (M2) receptor stimulation in the heart do? what stimulates them?

Answer 64

ACh causes K+ channels to promote hyperpolarization, making it harder to reach threshold for depolarization

Question 65

what electrically insulates atria from ventricles

Answer 65

fibro-granular rings around AV valve

Question 66

What does atrial repolarization look like on an ECG

Answer 66

can't see it as it is too small