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Cell Differentiation Flashcards

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1
Q

What is differentiation

A

process by which different types of cell arise and quire properties of mature functional cells

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2
Q

How does J.M.W Slack define cell differenntiation

A

mechanism wheereby different sorts of cells arise
The acquisition during development of the properties of mmature functional cells

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3
Q

What is the starting point of development in multicellular organisms

A

single fertilised egg cell

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4
Q

Why is timing and placement important in cell differentiation?

A

To ensure that the correct cell types form at the right time and in the correct locations during development

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5
Q

what is symmetric proliferative

A

divides to form two new proliferating cells

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6
Q

what are proliferating cells

A

cells that are actively dividing and increasing in number

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7
Q

asymmetric cells do what

A

form cells with different fates
-one daughter cell renters cell cycle other will differentiate
-other possibilities (stem cell)

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8
Q

What is symmetric generative

A

both daughter cells differentiate

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9
Q

On a graph where are symmetric proliferative, asymmetric and symmetric generative

A

graph like flat hill for Progentors
low to high for neurons

Symm proliferative = first bit until plateau
Asymm gen =middle until decline
Symm gen = end bit

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10
Q

What regulates different cell behaviours during development

A

extrinsic and intrinsic factors

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11
Q

What type of polarity can proliferative cells have

A

apical-basal polarity

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12
Q

what is apical-basal polarity

A

organisation of the placements of cell
Apical = face outside or inside of organ or tube
Basal = inside of tissue and connects to underlying structures (basement membrane)

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13
Q

What localises to an apical complex

A

Specific protein complexes

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14
Q

What does the orientation of mitotic spindle do

A

determines if complex is inherited by one or both daughter cells

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15
Q

what happens if both daughter cells retain their complexes

A

both renter cell cycle

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16
Q

what happens if only one cell inherits tee complex

A

other cell differentiates

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17
Q

definition of a stem cell

A

cells that are undifferentiated, long lived, divides to product more copies of itself, divides to produce cell destined to differentiate

cells that have potency to produce many different types of differentiated cells

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18
Q

totipotentn cells def

A

generate all embryonic
and extra-embryonic cell types

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19
Q

Pluripotent Cells

A

e.g. Embryonic stem cells
- Generate all cell types in the
embryo

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20
Q

Multipotent Cells

A

Generate a range (but not all)
cell types

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21
Q

Unnipotent cells

A

single cell type

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22
Q

Describe adult stem cells

A

multipotent mainly
important for tissue maintence and repair
more restricted than embryonic
more limited capacity for self renewal

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23
Q

What is a clonal analysis

A

label single cell
passed onto progency (cell that will differentiate)
cell labelled later in development generate more restricted range of progency

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24
Q

how are specified cells developed and can these cells have their fate changed

A

autonomously when isolated from embryo (placed in culture)
Can change fate in response to environmental signals

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25
How are determined cells developed
autonomously when isolated from embryo (cuture) No longer liable Retain original fate even if environment changed Usually no change in cell morphology
26
What happens once cell fate is determined
deision to differentiation may take several cell generations
27
difference between cell fate being specified and determined
Specified = cell type can change if placed in diff environment Determined = irreversible
28
What part of gene expression is changed from differentiation
DNA --transcription-> mRNA --transation-> protein Transcription controls cell differentiation
29
What type of cell used to provide nucleus in dolly cloning experiment
adult mammary gland cell
30
WHat is an enucleated oocyte
egg cell that has had its nucleus removed
31
what was the genetic source of the cloned sheep
adult mammary gland cell donor
32
was dolly genetically identical to the egg donor or nuclear donor
nuclear
33
what does the doly exp demonstrate about adult somatic cell nuclei
they contain all the genes needed for full development
34
Has cloning been demonstrated in species other than sheep
dogs, cats, horses, cows
35
Is any DNA changed during differentiation
no dna is lost or altered
36
why is it weird that humans have millions of different cell types
number of genes in genome much smaller than number of differentiated cell types
37
How is each distinct cell type defined in the human body
unique combination of gene expression not by a single gene
38
What are master regulators
transcription factors that drive differentiation of specific cell lineages by controlling gene expression programs
39
How are cell types defined
by expression of multiple genes together
40
how do transcription factors regulate gene expression
-bind to DNA for transcription -bind to regulatory regions in DNA (promoters, enhancers) -turn 'on' (active or repress) transcription specific genes -Single transcription factor can activate or repress expression of different genes -Directly regulated genes may include other transcription factors
41
What are some transcription factors
-proteins that bind to specific DNA sequences -promote or block recruitment of RNA polymerase -Controlling rate of transcription of DNA -> mRNA
42
what do signalling molecules do
-bind to receptors activating cellular response -indirectly alter gene expression (modifies transcription factors)
43
How are muscles differentiated process
1) Mrf4 transcription factor activated 2) Mesodermal progenitors are determined towards muscle fate 3) Other transcription factors activated (MyoD, Myf5) 4) Activation of these factors is self sustaining 5) Activation of muscle differentiation genes 6) Myogenin activates expression of muscle-specific proteins
44
Do myoblasts differentiate
no
45
process of what happens when MyoD is used for differentiation
1) MyoD (transc factor) binds to promotor of p21 gene 2) Unregulates transcription of p21 3) P21 protein generated and binds to CDK 4) P21/CDK complex blocks cell cycle at G1 5) Differentiation occurs
46
What are the two main mechanisms used for driving cells towards a particular fate
Cytoplasmic determinants extracellular signals
47
WHat do extracellular signals do
signals from one group of cells that influence development of another group of cells
48
what do cytoplasmic determins do
-determines fate of cells -located in part of egg or blastomere -differentially distributed into daughter cells depending on plane of cleavage -cell inheriting each factor follows different developmental pathway
49
what are the names of the cells used for extracellular signals
signal producing cell = inducer receiving cell = responder
50
name for ability of cell to respond to signal
competence
51
how can signals be responded to
receptors used for inducing signal + functional signal transduction pathway
52
what may happen to the signal
signal may be propagated over several cells or be highly localised
53
WHat are the two types of induction
permissive insrtuctive
54
what do permissive inductions do
tissue already knows what it will become needs permissive signal for successful differentiation
55
What does instructive induction signal do
induces change in fate in responding cell instructs tissue what fate to adopt amongst two or more options
56
What are morphogens and what to they do
-Molecules that produce different responses dependent on their conc -Produce signalling gradient converted into gene expression domains by concentration-specific response of target genes
57
Describe the gradient hypothesis
signal produced by specific group of cells high conc = blue below threshold = white low conc = red french flag
58
what is the polarising region in limb development
signalling centre in posterior region of limb bud that induces digit patterning
59
what happens if you transplant a second polarising region into the anterior limb bud
extra set of digits forms in a mirror image duplication
60
how does the polarising region pattern digits
signalling gradient different conc = diff gene expression patterns
61
what concept does the polarising region illustrate
morphogen gradients can control tissue patterning through conc-dependent gene expression
62
WHat does lateral inhibition do
inhibits adjacent cells from adopting the same fate
63
how does lateral inhibition inhibit adjacent cells
-maintains pool of progenitors while ensuring appropriate cell types form -regular spacing of cells
64
What signalling does lateral inhibition do
notch signallingw
65
what does notch signalling do
signalling occurrs between adjacent cells initially uniform so they all have potential to form neurons
66
what are stochastic differences
signalling level in one cell changes relative to neughbours
67
how are small changes using these signals amplified
using feedback pathway
68
what happens if lateral inhibition is impaired
balance shifted towards differentiation more cells differentiate early once tissue begins differentiation increased formation early born cell types depleted progenitor pool few progenitors left
69
what is defifferentiation
loss of differentiation characteristics associated with regeneration
70
what is transdifferentiation
change of one diferentiated cell type into another regeneration and pathological conditions (cancer)
71
what are iPSCs not abbreviated
induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
72
What are iPSCs define
differentiated adult somatic cells that have been reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell-like state
73
What kind of cells are commonly used to generate iPSCs
adult somatic cells (e.g. fibroblasts)
74
What drives reprogramming of somatic cells into iPSCs
ectopic expression of four transcription factors known as yamanaka factors
75
What are the key features of iPSCs
pluripotent dedifferentiate and give rise to cells from all three germ layers
76
why are iPSCs significant in medicine
major advances in regenerative medicine pluripotent cells
77
Who received the 2012 nobel prize for discovering iPSCs
Shinya Yamanaka and Sir John Gurdon
78

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