Cells and Tissues Flashcards
1
Q
- Robert Hooke looks at cork under a microscope
A
1665
2
Q
Cell is the basic unit of biological structure and function.
A
Cell Theory
3
Q
Mathias Schleiden
A
1838
4
Q
Theodore Schwann
A
1839
5
Q
Rudolf Virchow
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1858
6
Q
• Entire organism is not merely a group of independent units but rather a living unit subdivided
into cells, which are connected and coordinated into a harmonious whole.
A
Organismal Theory
7
Q
Organismal Theory
A
(1879) Anton de Bary
8
Q
smallest unit of living structure capable of independent existence,
composed of a membrane-enclosed mass of protoplasm and containing a nucleus.
A
CELL
9
Q
are the living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane.
A
CELLS
10
Q
are the living structural and functional units enclosed by a membrane.
A
CELLS
11
Q
the study of cellular structure and function
A
CYTOLOGY
12
Q
•All organisms are composed of one or more cells
•Chemical reactions of living organisms, including its energy-related
processes and its biosynthetic processes occur within the cell
•Cell contain the hereditary information of the organisms of which they
are part.
A
Cell Theory (Modern Form)
13
Q
• First to arise in biological evolution
• Generally solitary with then nuclear material unenclosed in a membrane
A
Prokaryotic Cells
14
Q
• Multicellular and provided with a nuclear membrane
• Larger and more complex, with a wider range of diversity and differentiation
A
Eukaryotic
15
Q
Cell Functions
A
• Basic Unit of Life
• Protection and Support
• Movement
• Communication
• Metabolism and energy
release
• Inheritance
16
Q
Physiologic Properties of Cells
A
• Excitability
• Conductivity
• Contractility
• Absorption and Secretion
• Excretion
• Respiration
• Growth and Reproduction
• Organization
17
Q
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE CELL
A
A. Cell Membrane
B. Cytoplasm
C. Nucleus
18
Q
• Flexible yet sturdy barrier that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of a cell.
• Fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment
A
Cell Membrane
19
Q
the arrangement of molecules within the membrane resembles a sea of lipids containing many types of proteins.
• The lipids act as a barrier to certain substances.
• The proteins act as “gatekeepers” to certain molecules and ions
A
The fluid mosaic model
20
Q
Cell Membrane Functions
A
• Gives shape to the cell
• Separates the cell from its
environment
• Serves as recognition sites
• Serves as selective barrier
21
Q
Membrane Proteins
A
A. Integral protein
B. Peripheral protein
C. Glycoprotein
D. Glycocalyx
22
Q
• extend into or through the lipid bilayer among the fatty acid tails and are firmly embedded in it.
A
Integral protein
23
Q
• attached to the polar heads of membrane lipids or to integral proteins at the inner or outer surface of the membrane.
A
Peripheral protein
24
Q
• Membrane proteins with a carbohydrate group attached that protrudes into the extracellular fluid
A
Glycoprotein
25
• “sugary coating” surrounding the membrane made up of the carbohydrate portions of the glycolipids and glycoproteins
Glycocalyx
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The cell is either permeable or impermeable to certain substances.
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
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means that a structure permits the passage of substances through it.
Permeable
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means that a structure does not permit the passage of substances through it.
Impermeable
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GRADIENTS ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Concentration gradient
• Electrical gradient
Electrochemical gradient
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is the difference in the concentration of a chemical between one side of the plasma membrane and the other.
Concentration gradient
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is the difference in concentration of ions between one side of the plasma membrane and the other.
Electrical gradient
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Together, these gradients make up an
Electrochemical gradient
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TRANSPORT MECHANISMS ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
I. Passive Process
II. Active Process
34
I. PASSIVE PROCESS
A. Simple diffusion
B. Osmosis
C. Facilitated Diffusion
D. Filtration
35
Net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area with lower concentration, that is along their concentration gradient
Simple diffusion
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Simple diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane
Osmosis
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Same as simple diffusion but the diffusing substance is attached to a lipid soluble carrier
Facilitated Diffusion
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Movement of water and solutes through a semi-permeable membrane from an area with higher hydrostatic pressure to an area with a lower hydrostatic pressure, that is, along a pressure gradient
Filtration
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II. ACTIVE PROCESS
A. Active transport
B. Exocytosis
C. Endocytosis
D. Phagocytosis
E. Pinocytosis
F. Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
40
• Movement of substance through a membrane against a concentration or electrochemical gradient and requires a membrane carrier protein
Active transport
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Secretion or ejection of substances enclosed in a membrane vesicle which fuses with the plasma membrane and ruptures
Exocytosis
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Engulfed extracellular substance are brought to the cytoplasm in a membrane-limited vesicle
Endocytosis
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Cell eating; insoluble substances are engulfed and are enclosed in a vesicle known as “phagosome”
Phagocytosis
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Cell eating; insoluble substances are engulfed and are enclosed in a vesicle known as
Phagocytosis
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Cell drinking; engulfment of small amount of fluid enclosed in pinocytic vesicles
Pinocytosis
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External substances binds to membrane receptors and are engulfed with their receptors
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis
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• The protoplasm outside the nucleus which contains the different organelles and
inclusions
• Divided into an outer gel-like ectoplasm and an inner more liquefied endoplasm
• Cytosol: the clear fluid portion in which the particles are dispersed
B. Cytoplasm
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FORMED ELEMENTS OF THE CYTOPLASM
I. Organelles
II. Inclusions
III. Cytoskeleton
49
• Metabolically active internal organs carrying out specific essential functions
Organelles
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Metabolically inert accumulations of cell products
Inclusions
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• Responsible for the gel-like consistency of the cytoplasm
• Forms the structural support or framework of the cell
Cytoskeleton
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I. ORGANELLES
A. Mitochondria
B. Ribosomes
C. Endoplasmic Reticulum
D. Golgi complex
E. Lysosomes
F. Centrosome
G. Cilia and Flagella
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II. INCLUSIONS
A. Glycogen
• Storage form of carbohydrates in animal cells
B. Lipid
• Serves as energy source
• For synthesis of membranes
C. Pigments
D. Crystals
• Least common among the inclusions
54
III. CYTOSKELETON
A. Microfilaments
B. Intermediate filaments
C. Microtubules
55
• help generate movement and provide mechanical support
• thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton
• Composed of actin & myosin
Microfilaments
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thicker than microfilaments but thinner than microtubules
Intermediate filaments
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• largest of the cytoskeletal components and are long, unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin
Microtubules
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• Control center of the cell
• Repository of genes which are the carriers of hereditary traits of an individual
• DNA is the principal nucleic acid of chromatin
Nucleus
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• a single molecule of DNA associated with several proteins, contains thousands of hereditary units called genes.
Chromosome
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control most aspects of cellular structure and function
Genes
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• Shortest period of the cell cycle
• Nuclear division and Cytoplasmic division
CELL DIVISION
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-is a group of cells that usually have a common origin in an embryo and
function together to carry out specialized activities.
-may be hard, semisolid, or even liquid in their consistency, a range
exemplified by bone, fat, and blood.
Tissue
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is the science that deals with the study of tissues
Histology
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is the science that deals with the study of tissues
Histology
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is a physician who specializes in laboratory studies of cells and
tissues to help other physicians make accurate diagnoses.
Pathologist
66
are contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells.
CELL JUNCTIONS
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are contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells.
CELL JUNCTIONS
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CELL JUNCTIONS
Examples:
1. Tight Junction
2. Adherens Junction
3. Desmosome
4. Hemidesmosome
5. Gap/ Communicating Junction
69
TYPES OF TISSUES
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscular
4. Nervous
70
- Also know as Occluding Junctions or Zonula Occludens
-consist of web-like strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer surface of the adjacent plasma membrane to seal off passageways between adjacent cells
Tight Junctions
71
contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the Cytoskeleton.
Adherens Junctions
72
transmembrane glycoproteins that joins the cells.
Cadherins
73
Note:
• In epithelial cells, adherens junctions often form extensive zones called adhesion
belts because they encircle the cell similar to the way a belt encircles your waist.
74
• attaches to elements of the cytoskeleton known as
intermediate filaments, which consist of the protein keratin.
Desmosomes
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• resemble desmosomes, but they do not link adjacent cells. The name arises from the fact that they look like half of a desmosome
• However, the transmembrane glycoproteins in hemidesmosomes are integrins rather than cadherin.
HEMIDESMOSOMES
76
• allow the cells in a tissue to communicate with one another.
• membrane proteins called connexins form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons that connect neighboring cells.
GAP JUNCTIONS
77
ORIGINS OF EPITHELIUM
A. Ectoderm
B. Mesoderm
C. Endoderm
78
• Epidermidis, glandular appendages of the skin
Ectoderm
79
Vascular endothelium, kidneys, reproductive tracts
Mesoderm
80
Intestinal tract, liver, pancreas and lungs
Endoderm
81
STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
• Apical (free) surface
• Lateral surface
• Basal surface
82
receives cell secretions; they may or may not contain cilia or microvilli
Apical (free) surface
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contains the cell junctions
Lateral surface
84
deepest; adhere to extracellular matrix such as the basement membrane
Basal surface
85
TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Covering and lining epithelium
• Glandular epithelium
86
• forms the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs.
• It also forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, and body cavities, and the interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
Covering and lining epithelium
87
makes up the secreting portion of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sweat glands.
Glandular epithelium
88
• Function for secretion, which is accomplished by glandular cells that often lie in
clusters deep to the covering and lining epithelium.
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
89
GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
• Endocrine glands
• Exocrine glands
90
secretes hormones that enter the interstitial fluid and then diffuse directly into the bloodstream without flowing through a duct; ductless glands; secretion is inside
Endocrine glands
91
secrete their products into ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium such as the skin surface or the lumen of a hollow organ; secretion is outside
Exocrine glands
• Organs with Exocrine and Endocrine glands: pancreas, ovaries, and testes,
92
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE GLANDS
1. Unicellular glands
2. Multicellular glands
93
are single-celled glands.
• **Goblet cells are important unicellular exocrine glands that secrete mucus
directly onto the apical surface of a lining epithelium.
Unicellular glands
94
are common in exocrine glands composed of many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure or macroscopic organ.
Multicellular glands
95
CLASSIFICATION OF MULTICELLULAR EXOCRINE GLANDS
A. Branched or Unbranched
B. Shape of the secretory portions of the gland
C. Functional Exocrine Glands
96
Branched or Unbranched
• Simple Gland – if the duct of the gland does not branch.
• Compound Gland – if the duct branches
97
Shape of the secretory portions of the gland
• Tubular Glands – glands with tubular secretory parts
• Acinar Glands – those with rounded secretory portions; also called alveolar glands.
• Tubuloacinar glands – have both tubular and more rounded secretory parts
98
SIMPLE EXOCRINE GLANDS
A. Simple tubular
B. Simple branched tubular
C. Simple coiled tubular
D. Simple acinar
E. Simple branched acinar
99
Tubular secretory part is straight and attaches to a single unbranched
duct.
• Example: glands in the large intestine
Simple tubular
100
Tubular secretory part is branched and attaches to a single
unbranched duct.
• Example: gastric glands
Simple branched tubular
101
Tubular secretory part is coiled and attaches to a single
unbranched duct.
Simple coiled tubular
102
Secretory portion is rounded and attaches to a single unbranched duct.
• Example: glands of the penile urethra
Simple acinar
103
Rounded secretory part is branched and attaches to a single
unbranched duct.
• Example: Sebaceous glands
Simple branched acinar
104
COMPOUND EXOCRINE GLANDS
-Compound tubular
-Compound acinar
-Compound tubuloacinar
105
Secretory portion is tubular and attaches to a branched duct.
• Example: bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands.
Compound tubular
106
Secretory portion is tubular and attaches to a branched duct.
• Example: bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands.
Compound tubular
107
Secretory portion is rounded and attaches to a branched duct.
• Example: mammary glands
Compound acinar
108
Secretory portion is both tubular and rounded and attaches to a branched duct.
• Example: acinar glands of the pancreas
Compound tubuloacinar
109
are synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER; processed, sorted, and packaged by the Golgi complex; and released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis.
A. Merocrine Glands
110
accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell. Then, that portion of the cell pinches off by exocytosis from the rest of the cell to release the secretion
Apocrine glands
111
their cells accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol; As the secretory cell matures, it ruptures and becomes the secretory product because the cell ruptures in this mode of secretion.
Holocrine Glands
112
are one of the most abundant and widely distributed tissues in the body.
Functions:
• They bind together, support, and strengthen other body tissues;
• Protect and insulate internal organs
• Compartmentalize structures such as skeletal muscles
• Serve as the major transport system within the body (blood, a fluid connective
tissue)
CONNECTIVE TISSUES
113
- is the material located between its widely spaced cells.
• Secreted by connective tissue cells
• It consists of protein fibers and ground substance, the material between the cells and the fibers
• Controls the watery environment via specific proteoglycan molecules.
Extracellular Matrix
114
CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS
1. Fibroblasts (fibro-fibers)
2. Macrophage (macro- large; -phages eaters)
3. Plasma cells
4. Mast cells
5. Adipocytes
6. White blood cells
115
are large, flat cells with branching processes. They are
present in all the general connective tissues, and usually are the most numerous.
Fibroblasts (fibro-fibers)
116
develop from monocytes.
Macrophage (macro- large; -phages eaters)
117
reside in a particular tissue; Eg. Alveolar macrophages in the lungs or
splenic macrophages in the spleen
Fixed Macrophage
118
have the ability to move throughout the tissue and gather at sites
of infection or inflammation to carry on phagocytosis.
Wondering Macrophage
119
are small cells that develop from a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte.
• Secrete antibodies, proteins that attack or neutralize foreign substances in the body.
• Most plasma cells reside in connective tissues, especially in the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.
Plasma cells
120
are abundant alongside the blood vessels that supply connective tissue. They produce histamine, a chemical that dilates small blood vessels as part of the inflammatory response, the body’s reaction to injury or infection.
Mast cells
121
also called fat cells are connective tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats).
• They are found deep to the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.
Adipocytes
122
are not found in significant numbers in normal connective tissues. However, in response to certain conditions they migrate from blood into connective tissues.
White blood cells
123
gather at sites of infection
Neutrophils
124
migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and allergic responses
Eosinophils
125
• The ground substance is the component of a connective tissue between the cells and fibers. The ground substance may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified.
• It supports cells, binds them together, stores water, and provides a medium for
exchange of substances between the blood and cells.
• Component:
• Water and an assortment of large organic molecules (polysaccharides and proteins.
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
126
The polysaccharides include:
• a. Hyaluronic acid
b. Chondroitin sulfate
c. Dermatan sulfate
• d. Keratan sulfate
127
GROUND SUBSTANCE
-Hyaluronic acid
-Chondroitin sulfate
-Dermatan sulfate
-Keratan sulfate
-Adhesion proteins
128
is a viscous, slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs.
• White blood cells, sperm cells, and some bacteria produce hyaluronidase, an enzyme that breaks apart hyaluronic acid, thus causing the ground substance of connective tissue to become more liquid.
Hyaluronic acid
129
provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin, and
blood vessels.
Chondroitin sulfate
130
found in the skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heart valves.
Dermatan sulfate
131
found in the bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye.
Keratan sulfate
132
found in the bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye.
Keratan sulfate
133
are responsible for linking components of the ground substance
to one another and to the surfaces of cells.
Adhesion proteins
134
main adhesion protein of connective tissues which binds to both collagen fibers
and ground substance, linking them together.
fibronectin
135
PROTEIN FIBERS
A. Collagen fibers
B. Elastic fibers
C. Reticular fibers
136
are very strong and resist pulling forces (tension), but they are not stiff, which allows tissue flexibility.
• The properties of different types of collagen fibers vary from tissue to tissue.
A. Collagen fibers (colla = glue)
137
are smaller in diameter than collagen fibers, branch and join together to form a fibrous network within a connective tissue.
Elastic fibers
138
consisting of collagen arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein, provide support in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some tissues, such as areolar connective tissue (areol- small space), adipose tissue,
nerve fibers, and smooth muscle tissue.
Reticular fibers (reticul = net)
139
consisting of collagen arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein, provide support in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some tissues, such as areolar connective tissue (areol- small space), adipose tissue,
nerve fibers, and smooth muscle tissue.
Reticular fibers (reticul = net)
140
TYPES OF MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUES
-Dense connective tissues
-Cartilage
141
contain more fibers, which are thicker and more densely packed, but have considerably fewer cells than loose connective tissues. There are three types: dense regular connective tissue, dense irregular connective tissue, and
elastic connective tissue.
Dense connective tissues
142
consists of a dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers firmly
embedded in chondroitin sulfate, a gel-like component of the ground substance.
• Cartilage can endure considerably more stress than loose and dense connective tissues.
• The strength of cartilage is due to its collagen fibers, and its resilience is due to chondroitin sulfate
Cartilage
143
cells of mature cartilage occur singly or in groups within spaces called lacunae (sing. Lacuna) in the extracellular matrix.
• Chondrocytes (chondro-cartilage)
144
covering of dense irregular connective tissue, surrounds the surface of most cartilage and contains blood vessels and nerves and is the source of new cartilage cells.
Perichondrium (peri-around)
145
Three (3) types of Cartilage:
• 1. hyaline cartilage
• 2. fibrocartilage
• 3. elastic cartilage
146
are organs composed of several different connective tissues, including osseous tissue, the periosteum, red and yellow bone marrow, and the endosteum
Bones
147
basic unit of compact bone
• Osteon or Haversian system
148
• Parts of an Osteon:
• Lamellae
• Lacunae
• Canaliculi
• Central haversian canal
149
are concentric rings of extracellular matrix that consist of mineral salts (mostly calcium and phosphates),
• Gives bone its hardness and compressive strength, and collagen fibers, which
give bone its tensile strength.
Lamellae (sing. lamella)
150
are small spaces between lamellae that contain mature
Lacunae (sing. lacuna)
151
bone cells called
osteocytes
152
contains blood vessels and nerves.
Central (haversian) canal
153
lacks osteons. Rather, it consists of columns of bone called trabeculae (little beams), which contain lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, and
canaliculi.
• Spongy bone
154
• Description: Compact bone tissue consists of osteons (haversian systems) that
contain lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi, and central (haversian) canals.
• Location: Both compact and spongy bone tissue make up the various parts of
bones of the body.
• Function: Support, protection, storage; houses blood-forming tissue; serves as
levers that act with muscle tissue to enable movement
MATURE CONNECTIVE TISSUE: BONE TISSUE
155
is a connective tissue with a liquid extracellular matrix and formed elements. The extracellular matrix is called blood plasma.
Blood tissue (or simply blood)
156
is a pale yellow fluid that consists mostly of water with a wide variety of dissolved substances—nutrients, wastes, enzymes, plasma proteins, hormones, respiratory gases, and ions.
The blood plasma
157
are flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body.
Membranes
158
majority of membranes consist of an epithelial layer and an
underlying connective tissue layer
Epithelial membrane
159
Principal epithelial membranes
• mucous membranes
• serous membranes
• cutaneous membrane or skin
160
lines joints and contains connective tissue but no epithelium.
Synovial membrane
161
lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior. line the entire digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts, and much of the urinary tract.
Mucous Membranes
162
lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior (thoracic or abdominal cavities), and it covers the organs that are within the cavity.
SEROUS MEMBRANES
163
layer attached to and lining the cavity wall;
Parietal layer
164
– layer that covers and adheres to the organs within the cavity
Visceral layer
165
secreted by mesothelium; it is a watery lubricant that allows organs
to glide easily over one another or to slide against the walls of cavities.
Serous fluid
166
serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and covering the lungs.
Pleura
167
serous membrane lining the heart cavity and covering the heart
Pericardium
168
serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering the abdominal
organs
Peritoneum
169
consist of elongated cells called muscle fibers or myocytes that
can use ATP to generate force.
Muscular Tissues
170
Muscular Tissues
• Functions:
• Body movements
• Maintain posture
• Generate heat
• Protection
171
• Classification of Muscular Tissue
• Skeletal Muscular Tissue
• Cardiac Muscular Tissue
• Smooth Muscular Tissue
172
are sensitive to various stimuli. They convert stimuli into electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses) and conduct these action potentials to other neurons, to muscle tissue, or to glands.
Neurons (neuro-nerve) or nerve cells
173
Most neurons consist of three basic parts
a. Cell body
b. Dendrites
c. Axons
174
contains the nucleus and other organelles
Cell body
175
are tapering, highly branched, and usually short cell processes (extensions). They are the major receiving or input portion of a neuron.
Dendrites (dendr-tree)
176
of a neuron is a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long. It is the output portion of a neuron, conducting nerve impulses toward another neuron or to some other tissue
Axon (axo-axis)
177
do not generate or conduct nerve impulses, these cells do have many important supportive functions.
Neuroglia (-glia-glue)
