DVM2105[A] (Final) Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
What is an ODA ?
A
–> Official development assistance
Defined by Western donors in 1969, as a way to flow ODA to developing countries AND multilateral institutions that met the requisites of :
* (a) promoting the economic development and welfare of developing countries as the main objective
* (b) containing a grant element of at least 25 per cent.
2
Q
What are the 3 incentives for donors ?
A
- Help the less fortunate abroad (i.e. food, health care, education, basic necessities, etc.)
- Self-interest (i.e. pursue foreign policy objectives, diplomatic initiatives, international trade, prestige in IR, national defense, etc.)
- Private sector and governmental approaches (i.e. cooperation with MNCs, etc.)
3
Q
What is the concept of good governance ?
5 attributes
A
The idea is that in order for market-oriented development strategies to be effective, the political systems has to be:
- accountable
- transparent
- responsive
- efficient
- inclusive
4
Q
What is tied aid ?
A
Foreign aid that must be used to purchase goods/services from the donor country.
5
Q
What is a major donor characteristic (pay less administrative costs) ?
Main issue (how + where)?
A
Some countries transfer a much larger proportion of their aid to multilateral institutions than developing countries.
By doing so, they reduce their administrative costs but also some of their control over where and how their funds are spent. (e.g. USA)
6
Q
What’s the MCC goal ?
Millennium Challenge Corporation
A
The mcc aims to foster ECONOMIC GROWTH in a SMALLER number of countries that meet SPECIFIC CRITERIA regarding:
- Free markets
- Democracy
- Good governance
7
Q
What are the three factors at the core of the African revival ?
A
- The surge of commodity prices (oil, copper, gold and foodstuffs) has fuelled African exports and increased export revenue.
- Market based policies instituted in the late 1980s
- Notable strides in the political landscape (less corruption)
8
Q
What are the three types of aid ?
A
Humanitarian/emergency
Charity-based aid
Systematic aid (government-to-government)
9
Q
Post-war aid can be broken down in 7 broad categories; what are they ?
A
- its birth at Bretton Woods in the 1940s;
- the era of the Marshall Plan in the 1950s;
- the decade of industrialization of the 1960s;
- the shift towards aid as an answer to poverty in the 1970s;
- aid as the tool for stabilization and structural adjustment in the 1980s;
- aid as a buttress of democracy and governance in the 1990s;
- culminating in the present-day obsession with aid as the only solution to Africa’s myriad of problems
10
Q
Which theorists laid the foundation for BANK & IMF ?
A
John Maynard Keynes and Harry Dexter White
11
Q
What’s the vicious circle of aid ?
A
- Aid fosters corruption
- Foreign aid props us corrupt governments with usable cash
- Corrupt governments interfere with the rule of law + transparency
- Investment in these countries isn’t attractive (not enough civil + institutions)
- Without the external investment = reduce economic growth
- Reduced economic growth = fewer jobs opportunities + increase poverty levels
- With increased poverty levels = foreign aid
RESTART
12
Q
Why does the West keep giving $$$ when it leads to corruption ?
A
- Pressure to lend
- The difficulty to decifer which country is corrupt
13
Q
What is structural adjustment ?
A
A controversial series of economic and social reforms promoted by the IMF and World Bank following the 1982 debt crisis that aimed to promote economic development through minimizing the role of the state and liberalizing markets.
14
Q
In 1945, how did the IMF work for the countries lending money and those looking to have money ?
A
Each member country paid into the IMF a quota of its own currency + gold/dollar holdings based on the size of its economy.
When facing economic problems, countries would be permitted to draw TEMPORARILY on the reserves of the IMF to pay off international debts.
The usage of these funds was intended to provide a country with SUFFICIENT TIME to STABILIZE its economy without resorting to measures such as currency devaluation.
15
Q
In the 1960s, IMF was funding primarly what ?
What is important for funding applications ?
Issue?
A
In the first two decades of its existence, more than 60% of its loans funded projects to build PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE (e.g.: highways, airports, electricity grids, and hydroelectric dams.
To receive such funding, applications from developing countries needed to MEET THE CRITERIA ESTABLISHED by the Bank to ensure that the project was technically sound and would GENERATE SUFFICIENT REVENU TO REPAY THE LOAN.
These criteria tended to EXCLUDE many of the POORER nations because they could not guarantee a significant rate of return.
16
Q
Why are the voting rights not representative ?
A
Voting rights are weighted according to quota subscriptions that reflect the size of a country’s economy… SUPERIORITY OF USA
17
Q
What did McNamara do in Bank ?
What’s his approach ?
A
McNamara emphasized the need for the Bank to fund DIRECT anti-poverty efforts through social programs AND projects aimed at modernizing the AGRICULTURAL sector.
Simultaneously, by focusing on health and education programs, McNamara’s approach became = the basic needs approach.
- (1) The Bank become considerably more active and powerful on a global level.
- (2) In emphasizing the need to focus on social objectives, the Bank opened up a debate about its own purpose and that of development finance in general.
PROMOTING ECONOMIC GROWTH
18
Q
What is the basic needs approach ?
A
An approach to development (1970s) that encouraged national governments and aid donors to prioritize policies, budgets, and actions that would ensure that disadvantaged people were able to access a MINIMUM level of well-being, including food, water, shelter, and primary education.
19
Q
Why is East Asia is a miracle ?
A
South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore DIDN’T follow the structural adjustment model.
- Embraced export-oriented growth
- Sustained involvement of the state in protecting and subsidizing selected industrial sectors to compete on international markets.
20
Q
What’s the Mexican Peso crisis ?
A
Market liberalization encouraged a stream of US investment into export-oriented industries in the early 1990s making Mexico appear to be booming.
The rapid economic growth would remedy low wages and high poverty levels.
In 1994, Mexico was thrown into a deep recession, with wages falling further and unemployment increasing.
The economic turmoil was resolved only when the US sponsored a massive bailout package and the Mexican government took over the debts of private banks.
21
Q
What is the main aim of good governance for institution-building ?
What is it’s fault ?
A
- Craft a political architecture that supports market economies through transparency, rule of law, and accountable decision-making (mechanisms that would enforce transparency and accountability).
By blaming the political environment for the failure of structural adjustment, the good governance doctrine denies that there may be weaknesses in the structural adjustment strategy itself.
22
Q
What is the Foreign Portfolio Investment ?
Critic ?
A
–> Investments not made in an enterprise form that include the purchase of foreign debt, loans, and stock market investments on foreign stock exchanges.
- This process is called “capital account liberalization,” and the IMF suggests that it complements other forms of liberalization and enhances the ability of developing countries to attract capital.
–> Critics suggested that FPI is short-term, speculative, and prone to creating financial bubbles.
23
Q
What does poverty reduction strategy papers entail ?
PRSPS : Poverty reduction strategy papers
A
prsps are intended to cover a wide range of social, economic, and political reforms, including a firm’s commitment to good governance + a country’s ownership of reforms.
24
Q
How does the World Bank use the theory ‘social capital’ ?
Market
Empowerment
A
The World Bank uses the theory to help explain the social dimensions as to why some individuals/groups are more successful in gaining assets to participate effectively in markets + and how they are less vulnerable to market fluctuations and other unforeseen events.
The Bank suggests that it needs to “empower the poor.”
- Empowerment is as a process where the poor are mobilized in creating reforms that reduce constraints on their economic activities and upward mobility.
25
The BANK says that we should empower the poor - how so (3) ?
The solution, according to the Bank, is to empower poor people by giving them VOICE :
- (1) by promoting democracy + the rule of law;
- (2) by promoting education
- (3) through technical assistance to civil society groups in forming “pro-poor coalitions” that can enforce good governance.
26
What was Rostow's POV on foreign aid + USA ?
Economists like Rostow (modernization theory) proposed that aid would help countries in the Global South while maintaining US foreign interests in these contexts.
27
What are the three main reasons why foreign aid goes to corrupt countries ?
- The pressure to lend as the aid industry employs a lot of people.
- The fear that the poor would suffer and that countries could not repay debts.
- Donors cannot agree on what is corrupt and what is not.
28
Sachs mentions three channels for aid investment; what are they ?
- Households, mainly for humanitarian emergencies such as food
- A country’s budget to finance public investments
- Private businesses (like farmers) through initiatives like microfinance or similar schemes.
29
What is Moyo's POV on foreign aid ?
(1) Aid is a vicious cycle that props up corrupt government
(2) Aid does not build a competent civil service
(3) Aid supports rent-seeking
(4) Aid results in poor public service contracts
(5) Aid does not build social capital/trust
(6) Foreign aid can encourage conflict
30
What is Moyo's take on how aid generates economic problems for developing countries ?
(3 characteristics)
- Reduces domestic savings ;
- Crowds out private investment;
- Rise of inflation.
31
The Bretton Woods system was predominantly influence by who ?
US and UK
32
What is the structure of the World Bank?
- 189 members
- Board of Governors for each of the WB group organizations
- Voting rights are based on contribution (US supremacy)
- Decisions made by consensus
33
The President of the World Bank was who? Who is it now ?
Initialy, David R. Malpass (american)
Now its Jim Young Kim (2019)
34
What are the attributes (functions) of the World Bank?
- Raise capital on private markets through World Bank bonds
- Offers loans (soft or hard) through IDA
- Research is based on development thinking
- Not really impartial (US supremacy)
- Shifts in projects created to the worsening of extreme poverty
- Wield significant clout due to its political/financial power + economic expertise
35
What are the 2 purposes of the World Bank?
(1) exchange rate stability
(2) short-term financing to overcome balance of payment difficulties
36
How does voting really work in the World Bank ?
What are the % of voting power USA ?
Members pay a “quota” :
- (1) constitutes a pool of money;
- (2) determines special drawing rights;
- (3) voting power on board of directors.
Voting Power: US has approx. 16.5%
37
What are the 3 conditionalities of the IMF?
- Reduce government expenditure;
- Tighten monetary policy;
- Eliminate structural weaknesses (privatize public firms)
38
What are the main critics of the IMF (5) ?
- Doesn't represent the realities of the states
- The US supremacy
- IMF + World Bank are represented by wealthy states
- The World Bank won't lend if IMF says no
- Countries are afraid to disagree with IMF despite having talented economists familiar with the local context due to fear of fallout with the IMF and the potential negative market effects
39
What were the reforms talked about in the 2009 G20 Summit ?
- Reform global architecture to the needs of the 21st century
- Shift in IMF quota share to dynamic emerging markets and developing countries
- Dynamic formula to reflect countries evolving economic weight
40
What are the functions of UNDP ?
2 MAIN FUNCTIONS
- Executive board = 36 members
- Extensive network of Resident Coordinators
- The UNDP is funded by ”voluntary contributions from UN Member States, multilateral organizations, private sector and other sources, in the form of unrestricted regular resources (core), and contributions earmarked for a specific theme, programme or project”
-- Gives grants
-- Provides technical assistance/cooperation
41
How does McNeill and St-Clair characterize UNDP?
Positive POV
The UNDP’s strength lies in its coordinating and convening power due to its relationship with governments of poorer countries --> its more responsive + humane development agenda.
42
Why does the UNDP fall short ?
* Falls short in its limited financial resources
* Gaps in technical expertise
* Donors have less confidence in the UNDP, want more control
43
What is the structural adjustment ?
A controversial series of economic and social reforms promoted by the IMF and World Bank following the 1982 debt crisis that aimed to promote economic development through minimization of the state in societies and liberalizing markets.
44
What was the original role of the World Bank ?
The original role of the IBRD (World Bank) was to make loans at preferential rates of interest to European countries devastated by war.
45
Why are IDA loans different ?
The International Development Association (IDA) was formed in 1960 as a new organization within the World Bank = gives loans that would fund large-scale infrastructure projects.
--> These loans were provided at a virtually interest-free status over long periods of repayment. This allowed the IDA to fund a range of projects that did not qualify under the standard conditions.
46
Who theorized entrepreneurship?
What does entrepreneurship entail?
Joseph Schumpeter
People with a special ability to combine the factors of production in new and innovative ways to cause economic growth.
47
What's the informal sector ?
What's the main issue ?
--> Part of the economy where individuals and enterprises do business without being officially registered or regulated.
--> Usually associated with small or micro-enterprises.
- They operate businesses that aren’t legally registered,
- They can’t get bank financing,
- They don’t pay taxes,
- They don’t follow labour or health and safety regulations.
In developing countries = survival strategy
48
What is Hernando de Soto's theory on entrepreneurs ?
Hernando de Soto argued that poor entrepreneurs were unable to convert the assets they controlled into capital because of an inadequate property rights regime.
- The absence of enforceable property rights is a “missing link” that condemns entrepreneurs to small-scale, unproductive, and precarious investments.
Property rights need to be strengthened and enforced to create the right incentives for productivity (e.g., collateral).
49
What are the 3 pillars the Commission deems necessary for the development of the entrepreneurial sector?
- Playing field with fair rules + enforcement (permit businesses to establish themselves easily);
- Access to credit;
- Support for the development of skills + knowledge (human capital).
50
What does property rights regime mean?
Goals ?
The legal framework defining which assets and whose assets are officially defined as property and recognized by others as such.
--> Having legally recognized property that can serve as collateral
51
What are the 2 features John Dunning explains for distinguishing MNCs + enterprises?
- Coordinates value-adding activities across national borders
- Internalizes the cross-border transfer of inputs used in the production process
52
What's an MNCs?
How are MNCs called in developing countries?
Corporations that invest across national borders and/or establish branch plants, subsidiaries, or other operations in more than one country.
--> Usually used as a synonym for “transnational corporations” and “multinational enterprises”...
Emerging multinationals (emncs)
53
What's the international division of labour (IDL) and who mentions it?
What's the main issue?
A concept that recognizes that countries served different purposes within the global economy --> developing countries exported commodities (natural resources) to the developed countries, who in turn exported manufactured goods back to them
* Paul Baran
* Unequal terms of trade + exchange --> superiority of CORE countries
High value manufacturing remained in the core countries and commodity and resource extraction was conducted in developing countries, maintained and deepened the underdevelopment of the periphery. Profits made in the periphery were sent back to the head offices in the core countries of the North.
54
What's Peter Evans' POV ?
He argued that the state can create its own state-owned firms and promote joint-ventures between the state, MNCs, and local firms.
This way, the state could push industrialization forward by benefitting from the technology, management skills, and capital contributed by foreign firms.
55
What's the OLI paradigm and who mentions it?
other name + 3 points
Developed by John H. Dunning and also known as the “eclectic” approach.
--> The internationalization of MNcs through the interaction of three factors related to its
- Ownership (O)
- Location-specific (L)
- Internalization (I) advantages
56
What are the 3 categories of the OLI paradigm?
Ownership advantages :
- Elements unique to the firm and generally not available to other firms (e.g.: patents, processes, organizational abilities, marketing and management, and access to capital, resources, and markets).
Location-specific advantages :
- Factors in a country where the investment takes place that fit with the firm’s other advantages and may include political and economic factors.
- When the factor is important to the firm, it will internationalize (become multinational) instead of simply trading with that country.
Internalization advantages :
- Advantages of coordinating production within the hierarchical governance structure of the firm instead of buying and selling the parts needed to produce…
57
What's a transaction cost ?
The economic costs of performing a market transaction.
58
What does transfer prices mean?
Concern?
The internal price that a MNC attributes to a product it trades across borders between different branches of its organization.
That price is fixed by administrative decisions.
Used as a strategic transfer pricing to reduce their overall tax burden by spreading it across more than one country.
59
What does the resource-seeking strategy entail?
MNCs require specific resources that are ONLY available abroad.
Typically, these resources may include natural resources + agricultural goods, desirable services that can only be accessed locally.
--> Needs specific managerial or technical skills.
60
What does the efficiency-seeking/cost-reducing strategy entail?
MNCs plan to make their global operations more efficient through exploiting differences in the availability and cost of labour, capital, and resources.
E.g. : The location of light manufacturing and assembly plants in low-wage countries.
61
What does the market-seeking strategy entail?
What are its characteristics?
MNCs establish a subsidiary to serve the consumer demand of a local market directly instead of by trade.
* FDI is chosen over trade because it is required by law to enter the new markets
* Permits the product to be adapted to local conditions
* Less expensive
* Strategic response to competing firms.
62
What does the strategic asset-seeking strategy entail?
MNCs buy up assets of other corporations as part of a global strategy to improve their competitiveness.
63
What does the obsolescing bargaining model (OBM) mean and who mentions it?
Raymond Vernon argues that each actor— state + firm—wants to capture a greater share of the benefits of foreign investment and that over time the relative strength of each actor changes.
At the time of the investment, the multinational corporation is in the stronger position, but over time, the initial contract over the terms of investment erodes as the state becomes more powerful.
64
What are the 3 outcomes of the obsolescing bargaining model?
The outcome is affected by their :
- Relative bargaining power (the resources each controls that are desired by the other party and not available elsewhere),
- Economic strategies (how the investment fits into the firm’s and the country’s economic strategy),
- Constraints (the existence of alternatives and pressure from domestic and international actors).
65
What are the 2 critics of OBM ?
1) Firms proved they could protect themselves from state intervention using political risk insurance AND prominent financiers (e.g.: World Bank or bilateral investment treaties)
2) The bargaining was counterproductive; the policies that encouraged firms to integrate with local suppliers had failed
66
What are bilateral investment treaties (BITS)?
Agreements that enunciate the principles of treatment that foreign investors are entitled to RECEIVE from host governments +
Permits MNCs to SUE host governments for breach of obligations.
67
What does the corporate social responsibility (CSR) entail?
Positive effect VS negative effect
The idea that corporations have a moral responsibility BEYOND their shareholders to a broader set of individuals and groups (known as stakeholders), affected by the activities of the firm...
On the one hand, corporate rights have been enhanced through international law and binding dispute settlement; on the other, corporate responsibilities remain purely voluntary.
68
What are partnerships?
Benefit?
Alliances between at least two of the following three actors: businesses; government; and civil society organizations.
The goal is to address development issues that cannot be effectively solved by any single actor.
69
What's Waddock's POV on partnerships?
agree or disagree, 3 characteristics ?
According to Waddock, different actors get together to “cooperatively attempt to solve a problem or issue of mutual concern that is in some way identified with a public policy agenda item” and that within such alliances, actors have “a common purpose, pool core competencies, and share risks, responsibilities, resources, costs and benefits.”
(1) collaboration between business and other social actors;
(2) a social or public purpose (such as responding to a policy or development problem);
(3) [ideally] beneficial for all the partners.
70
What were the 4 consequences of partnerships? - How did they relate to development?
Relation between private sector + development?
* (1) as many development agencies and civil society organizations saw their budgets stretched (or reduced) as needs grew, it was thought that the private sector could help to fill the gap by mobilizing resources.
--> Budget stretched/reduce = private sector filled the gaps by mobilizing resources.
* (2) it was thought that the efficiency and specialized skills of private companies could create synergies with development agencies to do "develop better".
--> The skills of the private sector would permit development agencies to be more efficient.
* (3) many large companies began to see doing development as integral to their own activities, corporate image, and profitability.
--> Development was intrinsically linked to corporations.
* (4) for ideological reasons, some development agencies and governments were willing to spend money to promote partnerships with the private sector.
--> Development agencies + governments want to collaborate and promote partnerships with the private sector.
71
What does shared value mean and who mentions it?
The idea that businesses can enhance their competitiveness by focusing on social problems in cooperation with governments and NGOs.
* Michael E. Porter & Mark R. Kramer
72
What do Michael E. Porter & Mark R. Kramer want from the shared value theory?
* Companies should creatively rethink products AND markets with the purpose of addressing the social problems
* Redefine their relationship with suppliers AND clusters in order to work constructively with small local firms, mainly to improve their performance and skills AND to develop the communities in which they are located…
73
What are the 5 different categories of enterprises?
* Micro-business: these are enterprises that are not formally registered and are largely in the informal sector. E.g., street and market vendors.
* Small entrepreneurs: largely in the formal sector, like plumbers, electricians, and print-shops (most are locally owned).
* Medium-sized businesses: those with over 20 employees.
* Multinational corporations/enterprises: corporations that invest across national borders and/or establish branch plants, subsidiaries, or other operations in more than one country (most are foreign- owned).
* Foundations: organizations that are independent of corporate influence and serve a social purpose.
74
What are Dolan and Scott's POV on women empowerment in entrepreneurship?
Reference to Avon
Dolan and Scott looked at the partnership between multinationals, like Avon, and informal women’s networks as a means of reducing poverty and increasing gender empowerment.
75
What did Muhammad Yunus do?
He created a system of small loans to promote entrepreneurship as a way of helping people escape the vicious cycle of poverty and no property rights --> based on the premise of collective responsibility (solidairement responsable)...
76
How many MNCs are from developing countries?
7
77
Dependency theory & MNCs?
-MNCs are seen as an extension of the capitalist system, negatively affecting the countries they expand/invest in.
-Critical scholars emphasize the exploitation of labour and the adverse effects of MNCs on the environment, thus generating IDL (international division of labour)...
78
Mercantile approach & MNCs?
-See MNCs as reflecting the interests of their home country and have been described as channels for implementing certain foreign policies.
79
What's Haslam's POV on partnerships?
*Cso = civil society organization
- Rise of partnerships
(partnership entails resources that need to be shared + have mutual objectives among all partners + ongoing collaborations + consistent interactions among the leadership of all partners)
- Shrinking budgets for CSOs
- Skills of companies can be harnessed for “better development” (efficiency, technical and organizational)
80
What are the 3 traditions to understand civil society according to Veltmeyer ?
- LIBERAL TRADITION:
The basis for stable liberal democracies that safeguard civil & political rights.
Civil society as a force to counter the ills of the states (e.g., corruption) and exploitative corporations.
- NEO-MARXIST/SOCIOLOGICAL TRADITION:
Civil society as source of resistance against government (can be mobilized), often holding radical ideology.
Opposition to capitalism/neoliberalism
- INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
Civil society represents “stakeholders” who play the role of agents/“partners” for development
Is a participatory and empowering form of development (more bottom-up than top-down; empowering the poor)
Conservative critique this tradition by labeling civil society as “false saviours”.
81
True/false, can associations be seperate from the state and formed by members of society?
TRUE
82
What are the 3 ways social organizations can take forms?
1) associations (sharing an organizational objective)
2) community-based (a shared sense of belonging, social bonds)
3) interest groups or class-based entities (pursuit of economic interest or power, like MNCs or labour unions).
83
Why do we say civil society is mostly issue-based rather than class-based?
The main goal is to improve their conditions through institutional reforms, etc.
84
What are the 6 types of organizations?
- NGOs
- Grassroots NGOs (GNOs) or Membership organizations
- Humanitarian organizations
- Social movements
- Epistemic communities
- Transnational advocacy networks/Global policy networks
85
Why is Veltmeyer critical of social capital?
Issues of development activitist?
Veltmeyer is critical of social capital because it hides the exploitative workings of the capitalist system.
* He argues that by focusing on social capital + civil society + local development; development activists ignore broader, formal structures, thus limiting their scope and restricting their ability to achieve progressive social change.
86
What are the two primary functions of an NGO?
Mention insider/outsider stategy?
* Operational: service delivery (deliver welfare, legal, financial services to poor); fill gaps left by the retreat of the state.
* Policy Advocacy: social change through influencing attitudes and policies of governments and IOs (lobby governments, publicize new ideas)
These functions are conducted by an insider/outsider strategy:
* Insider: work within institutions to seek change (at the table with bureaucrats and politicians), moderate positions
* Outsider: publicly oppose policies through demonstrations and campaigns, often involving radical positions
87
How does the operation and policy advocady function within the insider/outsider strategy?
Operation + insider = Works with official aid agencies to deliver services to poor
Operation + outsider = Entirely grassroots delivery of services, no links/rejects links with official channels
Policy + insider = Involved in meetings with governmental officials in order to influence policy
Policy + outsider = Popular mobilization with intent to change policy
88
According to Mallaby, why does he say that NGOs don't always serve the interest of the poor?
Example of a case-study?
- NGOs block funding for well-deserved projects
- Claims aren't based on facts
- Lack of compromise
- Politically mixed (policies + third parties - become a personal patronage machine)
- Issues of accountability
- Constraint by funding
For example, the International Rivers Network (California) claimed environmental destruction in Ugandan due to a World Bank promoted dam being built near the water sources of the River Nile.
89
What are the key principles of humanitarian organizations (4x adj)?
Impartiality
Neutrality
Independence
Humanity
90
What are the 4 trends of humanitarian assistance since WW2 ?
* Rise of “humanitarian interventionism” (military intervention partly justified on humanitarian grounds)
* “Instrumentalism of aid” (humanitarian intervention, development projects serve strategic military objectives)
* Increased spending on humanitarian aid, including from governments
* Risks to “downward accountability” (to recipients)
91
What does civil society entail in the liberal tradition?
Liberals interpretation of civil society VS government/corporations?
Civic institutions and political activity are essential components of “political society” based on the principles of citizenship, human rights, democratic representation, and the rule of law...
Civil society = countervailing force against corrupt state + exploitative corporations
92
What does civil society entail in the sociological view of state?
Civil society is a repository of popular resistance to government policies + “counter-hegemonic” bloc in contesting the state/other forms of class power.
93
What does civil society entail for the international cooperation?
* Seen as a representation of the stakeholders/agent for a participatory + inclusive form of development = economic
* Is a strategic partner in the war against global poverty waged with IOs, mainly because it empowers the poor
94
What IS civil society?
Its a collectivity of social organizations that are NOT controlled by the state or businesses.
The presence and active participation of civil society organizations is deemed necessary to guarantee of democracy, good governance, and participatory development.
95
What's a social movement?
Groups of individuals in civil society who join together to seek social change through collective action.
96
What's the difference between a social movement + NGO?
NGOs are fundamentally concerned with bringing about improvement in the socio-economic conditions of a defined or targeted population by means of policy development or institutional reform.
Social movements tend to have a more confrontational approach in challenging directly the holders and agencies of economic and political power.
97
What are the three dynamic factors that affect social change?
* AGENCY (the strategies pursued and actions taken by diverse organizations and individuals).
* STRUCTURE (the institutionalized practices that shape or limit action).
* CONTEXT (the specific “situation” or historical conjuncture of objectively given and subjectively experienced “conditions” of social or political action).
98
What are the 7 factors of civil society?
* Globalization
o Integration of countries in the new world order
o Invasive pressures of the global markets compromise their autonomy/sovereignty
o Flows of information/communication = transnational communities
* Democratization
o Active opposition to authoritarian government
o Civil society is marginalized/weakened through state repression from active engagement in politics
o Politics have a self-interest agendas that can undermine good governance
* Privatization
o Turning state firms to private enterprises “as efficient”
* Decentralization
o Democracy/good governance creates a more participatory form of politics/development
o Partnership approach to local governments and civil society
* Economic liberalization
o Active agency of governments in redistributing market-generate wealth and incomes
o Protectionism of the economy
* Inclusionary state activism
o More inclusionary form of development based on the new post-Washington consensus
o Dramatic change in the world economic system (i.e., rise of China)
o The result is neodevelopmentalism/neoextractivism
* Deregulation
o Creates distortion of market forces which fails to produce an optimal distribution of society’s productive resources, wealth and income
99
What's does neoliberal globalization entail?
* Doesn't want state interventionism
* Markets control the economy (law of deman/supply)
* New world order (liberalism + capitalism)
100
Civil society came about from 3 historical situations, what are they?
1) A postwar world order based on the IMF + World Bank + GATT
(2) An emerging East–West conflict and Cold War;
(3) A national independence struggle (i.e. colonialism)
101
What does sustainable livelihoods mean?
Relate to farms
A holistic approach that considers a wide range of livelihood strategies in rural areas, including but not limited to farming.
102
What are the 4 ways we can renovate the crisis of capitalist production?
* (1) changing the relationship of capital to labour, favouring the former and weakening the latter;
* (2) incorporating new production technologies and constructing a new regime of accumulation and labour regulation (post-Fordism);
* (3) relocating labour-intensive industrial production overseas, thereby unwittingly creating a “new international division of labour”;
* (4) bringing about a “new world order” in which the forces of “economic freedom” were liberated from the regulatory apparatus of the welfare-developmental state.
103
Why were NGOs enlisted by international organizations?
NGOs were enlisted by international organizations
- Strategic partners in the war on poverty
- To act as intermediaries between the providers of financial/technical assistance and the poor communities ravaged by the forces of modernization and abandoned by their governments
104
What is the theoretical perspective of NGOs?
One is to see them as catalysts of an alternative form of development that is participatory, empowering of women and the poor, equitable and socially inclusive, human in form, and sustainable in terms of both the environment and livelihoods.
According to Wallace, he views NGOs not as change agents but as the stalking horse of neoliberal globalization—a “Trojan horse” for global capitalism.
--> NGOs are positive change agents in modifying/improving conditions on numerous stances
105
What is the main role of civil society and organizations?
The primary role of civil society groups AND organizations has been to serve as intermediaries
* To intermediate between the communities, governments and companies
* To hold the latter accountable for the destructive impact of their operations on the environment
* Demand respect for the culture and human rights of community members, and ensure the engagement of the companies with both the governments and the communities.
106
What is humanitarian assistance?
Emergency life-saving support to people affected by a crisis focused on SHORT-TERM, rapidly provided assistance to relieve IMMEDIATE suffering but that for the most part DOES NOT try to address the underlying structural causes OR prevent recurrence of that suffering.
107
What is humanitarian intervention?
Military intervention motivated/justified in part with reference to humanitarian objectives of saving lives/relieving suffering.
108
According to Michael Barnett, what are the 3 major periods of humanitarian action?
* The age of imperial humanitarianism
* The age of neohumanitarianism
* The age of liberal humanitarianism
109
What did Henri Dunant do ?
Henri Dunant, created the Permanent International Committee for the Relief of Wounded Soldiers, which later became the International Committee of the RED CROSS (ICRC).
The goal is to provide support to those affected by NATURAL disasters.
110
What are the 3 conventions that set the blueprint for the rules of war?
Main goal?
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
- Geneva Conventions (1949) relating to the conduct of war
- Status of Refugees (1951).
Human treatment of civil and militants
111
CNN effect?
CNN effect : The broadcasting of humanitarian emergencies onto television screens around the world—first seen globally in 1984 with bbc coverage of a famine in Ethiopia—that can stimulate public interest.
112
What is liberal humanitarism?
A post–Cold War approach (1989–present) in responding to human suffering by NGOs + humanitarian donors (characterized by provision of services like health care, education, social safety nets -->that many argue ideally should be the responsibility of states.)
113
What's a dunantist organization?
Function?
* NGO that take a position of neutrality and impartiality, responding to humanitarian need WITHOUT seeking to influence the outcome or dynamics of a conflict.
-Dunantist organizations align themselves closely with humanitarian principles of neutrality and impartiality, but actively shirk alliances with political actors, seeking to carve out a “humanitarian space” where they can operate without the interference of political interests.
114
What's a wilsonian organization?
Function?
NGO that align themselves with a particular political stakeholder (either one side of a conflict or the perspective of a donor country) and seek to use humanitarian assistance to help bring about a desired political outcome.
-Humanitarian assistance is inherently political and has the potential to be used to promote positive political outcome.
115
What's the main opposition between dunantist and wilsonian?
W :
* Politically involved (influence political relations)
* Has a long-lasting effect (alleviate suffereing)
D :
* Interventionism can harm population + worsen the humanitarian crisis
116
What's a diaspora?
Diaspora : The transnational community living outside a particular country of origin, made up of first-generation migrants as well as their descendants. Many diaspora members remain committed to engaging with their country of origin through providing financial or social support in times of humanitarian need.
117
What's the main critic to humanitarian response?
Humanitarian response tends to be short-lived --> Once emergency conditions subside and the worst of a crisis is over, donors tend to shift their resources to other crises seen as more pressing. This leaves affected populations without adequate resources to recover fully from the disaster; they remain in a state of enhanced vulnerability to suffering should conditions deteriorate once more.
118
What does downward accountability entail?
The idea that aid recipients should have a voice in assessments of the effectiveness of that aid, for example, through access to a “complaints system.”
119
What does aid economy entail?
The system of employment, incentives, goods, and services that are made available as a result of large amounts of humanitarian assistance.
120
What does white papers on foreign aid entail?
In sum, what does it mean?
Chinese government documents of 2011 and 2014 outlining that country’s perspective on international development, which differs ideologically and ideationally from Western concepts of development and assistance, especially in regard to a view of “partnership” rather than “donor” and “recipient” and in relation to alleged non-interference in the governance practices of the receiving country.
-Offer insight into China’s perspective on international development
-Some see the relationship between China and developing countries as a zero-sum rather than win-win
121
What are the 3 emphasis of BRI?
(i) multilateralism in terms of consultation, joint contribution, and shared benefits,
(ii) open, clean, green cooperation,
(iii) the following of international/participating countries norms as well as the need to ensure fiscal sustainability.
122
What is BRI?
BRI : China’s flagship initiative under President Xi Jinping to bring together two separate but interrelated elements: a land-based Silk Road Economic Belt (sreb) and a sea-based 21st-century Maritime Silk Road (msr).
123
What is BRICS?
BRICS : Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa --> emerging economies.
124
What does south-south cooperation mean?
South-south cooperation : Cooperative state-initiated social, cultural, and economic activities between and among countries of the Global South.
125
What is the dutch disease?
What are its effects (China)?
Dutch disease : The discovery of new resources or a windfall because of a major increase in the price of a commodity leads to a number of negative side effects.
o Where China makes a significant contribution to the development of new sources of raw materials (direct effect) or where Chinese demand has a major impact on global commodity prices (indirect effect).
o One indicator of the potential existence of Dutch Disease is the appreciation of a country’s real effective exchange rate (REER).
126
What is the main critic of China's foreign investment in Africa?
Chinese infrastructure projects in SSA is that they are not focussed on meeting the needs of African development but rather are designed to promote China’s strategic political and economic interests by increasing its soft power and ensuring access to oil and mineral resources.
127
How did development ethics come to be and what is its aim ?
Came about as a response to society evolving in the future.
Its theme concerns the relations between actors who have a great relative power and others who are marked by extreme relative weakness and the responses to these disparities (i.e., othering, exploitation, extermination BUT ALSO, respect, sympathy, cooperation)
128
What is an alternative in ID (promoted by who) and what is the alternative development?
Alternatives : New ways of thinking and doing. Promoted by global ethics as a way of improving human well-being and dignity.
Alternative development : People-centred, participatory approaches to development that seek to de-objectify the recipients of aid and involve them in the process of their own material improvement, in contrast to Western development models that are seen to impose “solutions” to “problems” on aid recipients.
129
What does natural law ethics mean?
Name a few theorists?
Natural law ethics : An ethical view whereby ethical implications are proposed based on the nature of human beings and their environment from which human rights thinking is derived.
John Locke, Las Casas, Grotius
130
What is Las Casas' POV on natural law ethic?
Humans are a single specie with common worth and common necessities, and they deserve and are capable of mutual respect and sympathy.
131
What is the social contract theory and what is its main aim (theorist)?
Social contract theory: View of ethical reasoning that asks what participants would freely agree as being just to all. Commonly associated with Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and John Rawls.
-It treats the participants as free, equal, and intelligent; everyone pursues his/her own advantage (or own values), and together they negotiate a contract that supposedly is agreed by all. This bargaining may be specified as being between all households within a nation-state, full citizens or states as outlined in John Rawls.
132
Ruggie proposed 3 ways for minimizing harm, what are they?
(1) to draw out the implications of existing human rights agreements, not try for a special new convention for businesses.
(2) Rather than treating corporations as if they have the same responsibilities as states—to promote, advance, and protect all the human rights specified in all the conventions—his approach focuses on the obligation of businesses to not violate the rights indicated in the four foremost existing agreements.
(3) Ruggie indicated practical implications of that principle of non-violation, plus procedures for getting case-by-case negotiated compromises between conflicting objectives rather than falsely assuming that covenants and laws can foresee all details and resolve allcases in advance.
133
What are Ruggies guiding principles on how to institutionalize human rights responsabilities?
* States’ duties = corporate laws and regulation systems + agreements with investors.
* Citizens’ rights = adequate court systems + administrative mechanisms and company-level grievance mechanisms.
* Corporations’ duties = international law and human rights conventions + due diligence.
134
What is due dilligence?
--> Link to corporations
Due diligence: With regard to development ethics, the idea that corporations must make a reasonable effort to ensure that they respect human rights and repair failings.
135
What is the main critic of human rights?
Human rights thinking tends to represent values in a rigid format: definite rights to which correspond definite duties of definite duty-holders. Its rigidity is its strength, helping to make the claims enforceable, but is also its limitation…
136
What is the human development discourse? + authors
An approach to development ethics that avoids being loaded down by ideological and religious assumptions by focusing on facilitating access to values that people have reason to value.
Human development discourse is based on Sen’s capabilities approach + Martha Nussbaum.
137
What is the human security discourse?
An approach to conceptualizing development ethics that focuses on threats to the fulfillment of people’s priority needs.
138
What does Narayan highlights in her theory?
Narayan highlights voicelessness and powerlessness.
139
What is Sen's POV on well-being?
Sen recognizes the priority for a good life of fulfillment of some universal basic needs, such as in nutrition, education, and health. This needs-fulfillment can be seen as the removal of fundamental elements of ill-being, including most notably not living a full, healthy lifespan.
140
What are the criterias of Manfred Max-Needs' model of human needs?
Dimensions of need, being, doing, interacting...
(1) good personal relationships and friendship;
(2) intellectual/spiritual life;
(3) social participation and contribution.
141
Development ethics is based on three broad general tools, what are they?
(1) Observation, experience and exposure
(2) conceptualizing, analyzing and theorizing
(3) attempted application, adaptation and new learning
142
What did the Bandung Conference in 1956 do for Africa/China?
- Building diplomatic ties to counter Western/Soviet influence
- China wants to cement its leadership of Third World and Non-aligned movements
- China offers economic, technical and military support for African countries = liberation movements for independence
- South-South relationship
- China's influence as a foreign partner
143
What are the characteristics of China's strategies for engaging with Africa?
What's China's focus?
- Aid
- Infrastructure
- Scholarships
- Special concessions
- Debt relief
- Educational and medical training
Focus : infrastructure and natural resource extraction
144
What is FODAC?
Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) = instrumental platform/framework to see the mechanisms put in place (interest)
145
What are the key goals of the Sino-African relationship?
Promoting, nurturing and developing?
* Promote mutual economic development through the elimination of poverty of the majority of the population.
* Nurture their international competitiveness and capability in economic globalization as a means to elevate their status in international affairs.
* Develop cooperation to strengthen their bargaining stance with the rest of the world
146
What are the 5 pillars of China's engagement in Africa?
political equality and mutual trust,
win-win economic cooperation,
mutual learning between Chinese and African civilization,
mutual assistance in security,
solidarity and coordination in international affairs
147
How would Africa characterize sino-african relationship?
Economic pragmatism and symbolic diplomacy
148
What are the 3 networks in Africa (infrastructure development) by XI ?
China's infrastructure is a priority for One Belt One Road initiative.
o High-speed rail network
o Highway network
o Regional aviation network
149
What are the 5 challenges to Chinese engagements in Africa's development?
*Asymmetry of power
*Opaqueness of engagement and agreements reached
*Extractives nature of relationship/engagement
*Africa’s capacity to engage for a win-win relationship
*Elite capture of development
150
What does ID rely on?
ETHICS
International development relies on voluntary codes (e.g., UN Global Compact), agreements like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the ethical responsibility to “do no harm”.
151
What do Penz, Drydyl and Bose argue for?
Penz, Drydyk and Bose (2013) argue for right to participate in decision-making, be moved for good reasons, equitable sharing of costs/benefits…
152
What is the consequentialist ethic (theorist)?
Peter Singer says that we should be giving away all of the “surplus” income we have as long as it does not cause us to give up something of greater moral value.
153
What is the contractatian ethic (theorist)?
Thomas Pogge says that we have a moral duty to alleviate global poverty as we are responsible for the situation (i.e. colonialism).
154
What is the rights-based ethic (theorist)?
Charles Jones implies duties for individuals, states, and other institutions to protect and aid those whose basic needs are not being met through contemporary global market economies.
155
What is communitarianism ?
It takes issue with the cosmopolitan assumption that national borders have no moral importance.
Instead, communitarians believe that political and social community is morally relevant.
156
What is libertarianism (theorist)?
Nozick argues that individual rights to freedom and non-interference are the central moral good, and he places particular value on the right of individuals to acquire and retain private property. Therefore, libertarians oppose any form of obligatory redistribution of wealth, whether within one country or between countries.
157
What are the arguments that are FOR global redistribution?
- Consequentialist ethic
- Contractarian ethic
- Rights-based Ethics
158
What are the arguments AGAINST global redistribution?
- Communitarianism
- Libertarianism
