Final Study Flashcards by Tammara Diaz

What is the external opening of the anal canal called?

Anus

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What is the inferior part of the uterus called?

Cervix

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What is fluid-filled cavity within a blastocyst called?

Blastocoele

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Definition: Connecting stalk between the fetus and the placenta; contains the allantois, the umbilical arteries, and the umbilical vein.

Term: umbilical cord

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The passageway in the temporal bone that leads to the tympanic membrane of the middle ear

external acoustic meatus

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The process of spermatid differentiation that leads to the formation of physically mature sperm

spermiogenesis

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A muscle of the middle ear whose contraction tenses the auditory ossicles and reduces the forces transmitted to the oval window.

stapedius

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Tubular glands of the stomach whose cells produce acid enzymes intrinsic factor and hormones

gastric glands

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Early stage in the developing embryo consisting of an outer trophblast and an inner cell mass

blstocys

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A hormone released by most tissues, and especially by the kidneys, when oxygen levels decrease; stimulates erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation) in red bone marrow.

erythropoietin (EPO)

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Receptors sensitive to temperature changes

thermoreceptors

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Blood vessels that blood away from the heart toward the peripheral capillaries

arteries

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The hypothalamic nucleus that coordinates thermoregulatory activities

pre-optic area

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Inhalation or exhalation using only the diaphragm

diaphragmatic breathing

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the production of lymphocytes from lymphoid stem cells

lymphopoiesis

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Triangular region of the urinary bladder bounded by the exits of the ureters and the entrance of the urethra

trigone

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Fluid contents of the membranous labyrinth (the saccule, utricle, semicircular ducts, and cochlear duct) of the internal ear.

endolymph

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Disorder characterized by polyuria (excessive urination) and glycosuria (glucose in the urine), most commonly due to the inadequate production or diminished sensitivity to insulin with a resulting increase of blood glucose levels

diabetes mellitus

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Tear gland on the posterior, lateral surface of the eye.

lacrimal gland

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Transfer of blood from a donor directly into the bloodstream of another person.

transfusion

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The most caudal of the brain regions, also known as the myelencephalon.

medulla oblongata

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The auricle, external acoustic meatus, and tympanic membrane

external ear

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The hormone secreted by C cells of the thyroid when calcium ion concentrations are abnormally high; restores homeostasis by increasing the rate of bone deposition and the rate of calcium loss by the kidneys.

calcitonin (CT)

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Movement of air in and out of the lungs.

pulmonary ventilation

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Sensory receptors in the skin, mucous membranes, and special sense organs that provide information about the external environment and our position within it.

exteroceptors

A muscular tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the exterior.

urethra

Sensory organs that monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints.

proprioceptors

Cranial nerves that provide sensations to the pharynx and posterior third of the tongue; they also carry motor fibers to the stylopharyngeus muscle.

glossopharyngeal nerves (N IX)

The inactive proenzyme that is secreted by chief cells of the gastric pits; after secretion it is converted to the proteolytic enzyme pepsin.

pepsinogen

A sensory region monitored by the posterior rami of a single spinal segment.

dermatome

Stem cells whose mitotic divisions give rise to other stem cells and spermatocytes.

spermatogonia

Fusion of a secondary oocyte and sperm to form a zygote.

fertilization

A membranous sac at the tip of a spermatozoon that contains hyaluronidase; also called acrosomal cap.

acrosome

Glands on the inner surface of the prepuce that produce a viscous, odorous secretion called smegma.

preputial glands

Sensory receptors monitoring the functions and status of internal organs and systems.

interoceptors

A class of steroid sex hormones that includes estradiol.

estrogens

An enzyme present in some exocrine secretions that has antibiotic properties.

lysozyme

Conical tip of the spinal cord that gives rise to the filum terminale.

conus medullaris

An axon that carries impulses away from the central nervous system.

efferent fiber

A violent hit to the head with resulting loss of consciousness

concussion

A fringes; used to describe the fingerlike processes that surround the entrance to the uterine tube.

fimbriae

Modified neurons in the retina that facilitate or inhibit communication between bipolar and ganglion cells.

amacrine cells

A duct that carries bile between the gallbladder and the common bile duct.

cystic duct

The condition marked by a decrease in the hematocrit, the hemoglobin content of the blood, or both.

anemia

Cranial nerves controlling the superior oblique muscle of the eye

trochlear nerves (N IV)

Lymphoid organ important for red blood cell phagocytosis, the immune response, and lymphocyte production.

spleen

A cell in nervous tissue that is specialized for intercellular communication through changes in membrane potential and synaptic connections.

neuron

A peripheral gland or muscle cell innervated by a motor neuron.

effector

The centers in the medulla oblongata that set the background pace of respiration; includes inspiratory and expiratory centers.

respiratory rhythmicity centers

Outer layer or region of an organ or bone.

cortex

Sensory organs that monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscles and joints.

proprioceptors

Regions where adjacent cardiocytes interlock and where gap junctions permit electrical coupling between the cells.

intercalated discs

Terminal axonal branches that end in axon terminals.

telodendria

The fluid ground substance of whole blood; what remains after the cells have been removed from a sample of whole blood.

plasma

Collection of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system.

ganglion/ganglia

Blood plasma from which clotting agents have been removed.

serum

Isolation of the central nervous system, from the general circulation; primarily the result of astrocyte regulation of capillary permeabilities.

blood brain barrier (BBB)

Receptors that have the ability to detect changes in pressure.

baroreceptors

Two pairs of flattened, bladelike teeth located at the front of the dental arches in both the upper and lower jaws.

incisors

A reduction in the diameter of arterioles due to the contraction of smooth muscles in the tunica media; increases peripheral resistance; may occur in response to local factors, through the action of hormones, or from the stimulation of the vasomotor center.

vasoconstriction

Sensory receptors monitoring the functions and status of internal organs and systems.

interoceptors

Removal of most of a patient's blood followed by replacement of an equal amount of blood from donors.

exchange transfusion

A corticosteroid secreted by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal (suprarenal) cortex; a glucocorticoid.

corticosterone

Processes of the arachnoid mater that project into the superior sagittal sinus; sites where cerebrospinal fluid enters the venous circulation.

arachnoid granulations

Small secretory sacs or glands.

follicles

The innermost layer of the meninges bound to the underlying nervous tissue.

pia mater

The perilymph-filled chamber of the internal ear, adjacent to the basilar membrane; pressure changes there distort the round window; also called tympanic duct.

scala tympani

Large salivary glands that secrete saliva with high concentrations of salivary (alpha) amylase.

parotid glands

Network formed by branches of spinal nerves C5–T1 en route to innervate the upper limb.

brachial plexus

Inflammation of the stomach.

gastritis

Movable folds that cover the front of the eyeballs; also called palpebrae.

eyelids

The middle portion of the pharynx, bounded superiorly by the nasopharynx, anteriorly by the oral cavity, and inferiorly by the laryngopharynx.

oropharynx

Swallowing.

deglutition

The expanded ends of the olfactory tracts; the sites where the axons of the first cranial nerves (N I) synapse on central nervous system interneurons that lie inferior to the frontal lobes of the cerebrum.

olfactory bulbs

The bones of the middle ear: malleus, incus, and stapes.

auditory ossicles

The throat; a muscular passageway shared by the digestive and respiratory tracts.

pharynx

The sense of smell.

olfaction

Loose-fitting, fleshy pouch that encloses the testes of the male.

scrotum

Definition: Sperm production.

spermatogenesis

A pair of small laryngeal cartilages.

corniculate cartilages

A chamber or pocket.

antrum

An endocrine organ that is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone and is connected to the hypothalamus by the infundibulum; includes the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) and the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis); also called the hypophysis.

pituitary gland

An endocrine gland whose lobes are lateral to the thyroid cartilage of the larynx.

thyroid gland

A propagated change in the membrane potential of excitable cells, initiated by a change in the membrane permeability to sodium ions: see nerve impulse.

action potential

Stiffening of the penis prior to copulation due to the engorgement of the erectile tissues of the corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum.

erection

The percentage of formed elements in a sample of blood; also called volume of packed red cells (VPRC) or packed cell volume (PCV).

hematocrit

A cell whose meiotic divisions will produce a single ovum and three polar bodies.

oocyte

Integumentary glands that secrete cerumen.

ceruminous glands

Steroid hormones produced by the adrenal (suprarenal) cortex.

corticosteroids

Lymphocytes capable of differentiating into plasma cells, which produce antibodies.

B cells

Regions in the central nervous system (CNS) that are dominated by myelinated axons.

white matter

Muscular ridges projecting from the walls of the ventricles of the heart.

trabeculae carneae

Disorder of the pituitary gland characterized by polyuria (excessive urination) and polydipsia (excessive thirst) that results from inadequate production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

diabetes insipidus

Longitudinal canal in the center of an osteon that contains blood vessels and nerves, also called the Haversian canal; a passageway along the longitudinal axis of the spinal cord that contains cerebrospinal fluid.

central canal

A fluid similar in composition to cerebrospinal fluid; found in the spaces between the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth of the internal ear.

perilymph

Gelatinous membrane suspended over the hair cells of the spiral organ.

tectorial membrane

Phagocytic neuroglia in the central nervous system, derived from the monocytes of the blood.

microglia

An arteriole bringing blood to the glomerulus of the kidney.

afferent arterioles

A temporary structure in the uterine wall that permits diffusion between the fetal and maternal circulatory systems.

placenta

Thalamic nucleus involved in the integration of sensory information prior to projection to the cerebral hemispheres.

putamen

Liver cells.

hepatocytes

Nuclei in the hypothalamus that affect eating reflexes and behaviors; a component of the limbic system.

mammillary bodies

Serous membrane covering the outer surface of the heart; also called the visceral pericardium.

epicardium

Space between the superior portion of each of the three aortic valve cusps and the dilated portion of the wall of the ascending aorta.

aortic sinus

The primary estrogen secreted by ovarian follicles.

estradiol

Activated B cells that secrete antibodies.

plasma cells

An unusually high hematocrit due to the presence of excess numbers of formed elements, especially RBCs.

polycythemia

An interwoven network of blood vessels or passageways.

rete testis

Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), hormones of the thyroid gland; hormones that stimulate tissue metabolism, energy utilization, and growth.

thyroid hormones

Proteolytic enzyme secreted by the chief cells of the gastric glands in the stomach.

pepsin

The middle part of the small intestine.

jejunum

Vascular connection between the pulmonary trunk and the aorta that functions throughout fetal life; normally closes at birth or shortly thereafter, and persists as the ligamentum arteriosum.

ductus arteriosus

In a skeletal muscle, the point of attachment that does not change position when the muscle contracts; usually defined in terms of movements from the anatomical position.

origin

Childbirth, delivery.

parturition

Fluid similar to perilymph or cerebrospinal fluid that fills the anterior chamber of the eye.

aqueous humor

Reversible constriction of smooth muscles around respiratory passageways, frequently caused by an allergic response.

asthma

The segment of the nephron between glomerular's capsule and the nephron loop; the major site of active reabsorption from the filtrate.

proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

Cortical area of the cerebrum that is responsible for the integration of sensory inputs and/or motor commands.

association area

The smaller, medial subdivision of the posterior funiculus.

gracile fasciculus

Having a normal blood volume.

normovolemic

Superficial layer of connective tissue surrounding an internal organ; fibers are continuous with those of surrounding tissues, providing support and stabilization.

adventitia

The midbrain.

mesencephalon

Descending tracts that carry involuntary motor commands issued by the red nucleus of the mesencephalon.

rubrospinal tracts

A fold of mucous membrane that guards the connection between the ileum and the cecum.

ileocecal valve

Small blood vessels, located between arterioles and venules, whose thin walls permit the diffusion of gases, nutrients, and wastes between the plasma and interstitial fluids.

capillaries

The nuclei and centers in the cerebrum and diencephalon that are involved with emotional states, memories, and behavioral drives.

limbic system

A passageway that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct; also called the vas deferens.

ductus deferens

A muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach

esophagus

The mucous membrane lining the uterus.

endometrium

Hormones that stimulate the gonads (testes or ovaries).

gonadotropins

A natural communication, direct or indirect, between an artery and a vein.

arteriovenous anastomoses

Flap-like structure that maintains unidirectional blood flow.

valves

An enzyme that breaks down hyaluronic acid; produced by some bacteria and found in the acrosomeof sperm.

hyaluronidase

Receptors sensitive to vibration.

lamellar corpuscles

A hormone released by most tissues, and especially by the kidneys, when oxygen levels decrease; stimulates erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation) in red bone marrow.

erythropoietin (EPO)

Microtubules in the cytoplasm of a neuron.

neurotubules

Small, posterior, medial area of the thalamus.

epithalamus

An arch or the space bounded by an arch; in the brain, an arching tract that connects the hippocampus with the mammillary bodies; in the eye, a slender pocket located where the epithelium of the ocular conjunctiva folds back on itself as the palpebral conjunctiva; in the vagina, the shallow recess surrounding the protrusion of the cervix.

fornix

Circulating antibodies.

immunoglobulins

A mineralocorticoid produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex; stimulates the kidneys to conserve sodium and water; secreted in response to the presence of angiotensin II.

aldosterone

An opening in the bony labyrinth of the internal ear that exposes the membranous wall of the tympanic duct to the air of the middle ear cavity.

round window

The formation of lymphocytes.

lymphocytopoiesis

Superficial layer of connective tissue surrounding an internal organ; fibers are continuous with those of surrounding tissues, providing support and stabilization.

adventitia

Portion of the retina providing the sharpest vision, with the highest concentration of cones; also called the fovea.

fovea centralis

The product of meiosis in the male, cells that differentiate into sperm.

spermatids

Surgical incision of the vulva to prevent laceration during delivery.

episiotomy

The superficial region of the adrenal gland that produces steroid hormones; also called the suprarenal cortex.

adrenal cortex

White blood cells.

leukocytes

A dilated segment of the internal carotid artery whose walls contain baroreceptors sensitive to changes in blood pressure.

carotid sinus

The period of intra-uterine development.

gestation

Distinct outgrowths of nerve cell dendrites that are the sites of synaptic axodendritic contact; they are absent in motor neurons and numerous in pyramidal cells of the cerebral cortex and Purkinje cells of the cerebellar cortex.

dendritic spines

The receptor, sensory neuron, motor neuron, and effector involved in a particular reflex; interneurons may or may not be present, depending on the reflex considered.

reflex arc

A decrease in receptor sensitivity or perception after chronic stimulation; a change in pupillary size in response to changes in light intensity; physiological responses that produce acclimatization.

adaptation

The vessels of the lymphatic system; also called lymphatics.

lymphatic vessels

A mucous membrane; the epithelium plus the lamina propria; also called mucous membrane.

mucosa

Small packets of cytoplasm that contain enzymes important in the clotting response; manufactured in the bone marrow by cells called megakaryocytes.

platelets

The segment of the nephron between the proximal and distal convoluted tubules that creates the concentration gradient; also called loop of Henle.

nephron loop

The anterior edge of the neural retina.

ora serrata

Ascending tracts carrying poorly localized touch, pressure, pain, vibration, and temperature sensations to the thalamus.

spinothalamic tracts

Region between the muscularis mucosae and the muscularis externa.

submucosa

A receptor complex, located in the saccule or utricle of the internal ear, that responds to linear acceleration or gravity.

macula

Isolation of the seminiferous tubules from the general circulation, due to the activities of the nurse (Sertoli) cells.

blood testis barrier

Meningeal space containing cerebrospinal fluid; the area between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.

subarachnoid space

Hormones secreted by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal (suprarenal) cortex to modify glucose metabolism; cortisol and corticosterone are important examples.

glucocorticoids (GCs)

The fibrous, outer layer of the eye forming the white area of the anterior surface; a portion of the fibrous layer of the eye.

sclera

The shedding of blood and endometrial tissue at menses.

menstruation

The fluid ejaculate that contains spermatozoa and the secretions of accessory glands of the male reproductive tract.

semen

The primary estrogen secreted by ovarian follicles.

estradiol

Nerve cells forming a pathway from the brain or spinal cord to an effector (muscular or glandular) tissue.

motor neurons

Descending tracts of the extrapyramidal system, carrying involuntary motor commands issued by the vestibular nucleus to stabilize the position of the head.

vestibulospinal tracts

Hormone produced by enteroendocrine cells of the stomach, when exposed to mechanical stimuli or vagal stimulation, and the duodenum, when exposed to chyme containing undigested proteins.

gastrin

Involuntary, continual movement of the eyes as if to adjust to constant motion.

nystagmus

Gastric enzyme that breaks down milk proteins.

rennin

The middle germ layer that lies between the ectoderm and endoderm of the embryo.

mesoderm

The opposing surfaces of the teeth that come into contact when chewing food.

occlusal surface

Loose fold of skin that surrounds the glans penis (males) or the clitoris (females).

prepuce

Waste products eliminated by the digestive tract at the anus; contain indigestible residue, bacteria, mucus, and epithelial cells.

feces

Space between the spinal dura mater and the walls of the vertebral foramen; contains blood vessels and adipose tissue; a frequent site of injection for regional anesthesia.

epidural space

Term: white matter Definition: Regions in the central nervous system (CNS) that are dominated by myelinated axons.

white matter

Situated behind or outside of the peritoneal cavity.

retroperitoneal

Placental hormone that stimulates the functional development of the mammary glands.

human placental lactogen (HPL)

The layer of peritoneum on the abdominal organs.

visceral peritoneum

Red blood cells (RBCs); have no nucleus and contain large quantities of hemoglobin.

erythrocytes

Midsagittal band of neural cortex on the surface of the cerebellum

vermis

Expanded portions of the cerebrum covered in neural cortex.

cerebral hemispheres

The release of a secondary oocyte, surrounded by cells of the corona radiata, after the rupture of the wall of a tertiary follicle; in females, the periodic release of an oocyte from an ovary.

ovulation

Type of lymphocyte that can kill target cells without previous sensitivity.

natural killer (NK) cells

A nerve bundle containing the myelinated preganglionic axons of sympathetic motor neurons en route to the sympathetic chain or to a collateral ganglion.

white ramus communicans

In nervous tissue, the spread of excitation from one neuron to many neurons; an organizational pattern common along sensory pathways of the central nervous system.

divergence

Glands that contain exocrine and endocrine cells, or an exocrine gland that produces serous and mucous secretions.

mixed glands

Overproduction and accumulation of peritoneal fluid

ascites

A digestive organ containing exocrine and endocrine tissues; the exocrine portion secretes pancreatic juice, and the endocrine portion secretes hormones, including insulin and glucagon.

pancreas

The collection of afferent and efferent fibers of the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres, visible on gross dissection of the brain.

internal capsule

The smallest living structural units in the human body.

cells

A fibrous extension of the spinal cord that extends from the conus medullaris to the coccygeal ligament.

filum terminale

The anterior portion of each cerebral hemisphere; thought to be involved with higher intellectual functions, predictions, and calculations.

prefrontal cortex

A portion of the limbic system that is concerned with the organization and storage of memories.

hippocampus

Sections of myelinated nerve fibers between two successive nodes.

internodes

Inability to speak.

aphasia

Glands of the male reproductive tract that produce roughly 60 percent of the volume of semen. Also known as seminal vesicles.

seminal glands

Cellular organelle that contains DNA, RNA, and proteins; a mass of gray matter in the CNS.

nucleus/nuclei

The production of milk by the mammary glands.

lactation

A narrow band of tissue connecting two larger masses.

isthmus

A receptor complex in the scala media of the cochlea that includes the inner and outer hair cells, supporting cells and structures, and the tectorial membrane; provides the sensation of hearing; also called the organ of Corti.

spiral organ

Groups of neurons between sensory and motor neurons that control a coordinated activity.

Interneurons

Removal of soluble substances and water by transfer across the peritoneum.

peritoneal dialysis

Diffuse network of gray matter that extends the entire length of the brainstem.

reticular formation

The vascular complex in the roof of the third and fourth ventricles of the brain, responsible for the production of cerebrospinal fluid.

choroid plexus

Lymphocytes whose secretions and other activities coordinate cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunities; also called TH cells

helper T cells

The opening in the center of the iris through which light enters the eye.

pupil

Waxy secretion of ceruminous glands along the external acoustic meatus.

cerumen

Monthly cycle of gamete development in the ovaries, associated with cyclical changes in the production of sex hormones (estrogens and progestins).

ovarian cycle

The dilation of the bronchial passages; can be caused by sympathetic stimulation.

bronchodilation

Cells of the lymphatic system that play a role in the immune response.

lymphocytes

Hormone secreted by the pineal gland; inhibits secretion of MSH and GnRH.

melatonin

The fusion of male and female pronuclei following fertilization.

amphimixis

The layer of the peritoneum (serous sac) that lines the abdominal walls.

parietal peritoneum

Type of lymphocyte that can kill target cells without previous sensitivity.

natural killer (NK) cells

A hormone that causes an increase in systemic blood pressure, stimulates the secretion of aldosterone, promotes thirst, and causes the release of antidiuretic hormone; angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in lung capillaries converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II.

angiotensin II

The large, elastic artery that carries blood away from the left ventricle and into the systemic circuit.

aorta

The outermost layer of the eye, composed of the sclera and cornea; also called fibrous tunic.

fibrous layer

One of the large, dome-shaped papillae on the superior surface of the tongue that forms a V, separating the body of the tongue from the root.

vallate papillae

The tubular component of the membranous labyrinth of the internal ear; responds to rotational movements of the head.

semicircular duct

An abnormally high blood volume.

hypervolemic

Network of nerves arising from the anterior rami of the first four cervical spinal nerves.

cervical plexus

The transparent refractive structure of the eye that is between the iris and the vitreous humor.

lens

Cell division that produces gametes with half of the normal somatic chromosome complement.

meiosis

The reduction in size of the bronchial passages.

bronchoconstriction

Cells in the pancreatic islets that secrete glucagon.

alpha (α) cells

Inability to coordinate muscular movement.

ataxia

An extra-embryonic membrane, consisting of the trophoblast and underlying mesoderm, that forms the placenta.

chorion

Opening in the bony labyrinth where the stapes attaches to the membranous wall of the scala vestibuli (vestibular duct).

oval window

Blood protein produced by the liver that is converted to angiotensin I by the enzyme renin.

angiotensinogen

A modified sympathetic ganglion that secretes catecholamines into the blood during sympathetic activation; the core of the adrenal gland; also called suprarenal medulla.

adrenal medulla

See ductus deferens.

vas deferens

Thymic hormone essential to the development and differentiation of T cells.

thymosin

The pear-shaped reservoir for bile after it is secreted by the liver.

gallbladder

Exchange vessels that are similar in general structure to fenestrated capillaries. The two differ in size (sinusoids are larger and more irregular in cross section), continuity (sinusoids have gaps between endothelial cells), and support (sinusoids have thin basement membranes, if present at all).

sinusoids

Abnormally low platelet count in the circulating blood.

thrombocytopenia

The second cranial nerves, which carry signals from the retina of the eye to the optic chiasm.

optic nerves (N II)

Positive feedback along a chain of neurons such that they remain active once stimulated.

reverberation

An elevated epithelial projection on the surface of the breast, containing the openings of the lactiferous sinuses.

nipple

Stem cells in the ovaries whose divisions give rise to oocytes.

oogonia

The base of an organ such as the stomach, uterus, or gallbladder

fundus

Male gametes; also called spermatozoon/spermatozoa.

sperm

Formation and development of an oocyte.

oogenesis

Terminal pockets at the end of the respiratory tree, lined by a simple squamous epithelium and surrounded by a capillary network; sites of gas exchange with the blood; a bony socket that holds the root of a tooth.

alveolus/alveoli

Enzyme necessary for the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II.

angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

Network of vessels that carry blood from capillaries in the hypothalamus to capillaries in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis).

hypophyseal portal system

Receptors that can detect mechanical stimuli, such as touch, pressure, or vibration.

mechanoreceptors

Tracts carrying information from the spinal cord to the brain.

ascending tracts

The cessation of uterine cycles as a consequence of the aging process and exhaustion of viable follicles.

menopause

Vessels between the aortic valve and the entrance to the right atrium; the circulatory system other than vessels of the pulmonary circuit.

systemic circuit

Small arterial branches that deliver blood to a capillary network.

arterioles

Any agent or factor that induces or increases the risk of abnormal prenatal development.

teratogen

Painful menstruation.

dysmenorrhea

A compact mass; usually refers to compacted ingested material (food) on its way to the stomach.

bolus

A hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands when blood calcium levels decrease below the normal range; causes increased osteoclast activity, increased intestinal calcium uptake, and decreased calcium ion loss by the kidneys.

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

Series of fibers connecting the ciliary body with the lens of the eye

ciliary zonule

Sudden loss of neurologic function with complete recovery.

transient ischemic attack (TIA)

Passageway that transports tears from the nasolacrimal sac to the nasal cavity.

nasolacrimal duct

A hormone, produced by nurse cells of the testes and follicular cells of the ovaries, that inhibits the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

inhibin

Region of the adrenal cortex that secretes androgens.

zona reticularis

Compounds containing relatively small lipids bound to a protein.

lipoproteins

The superficial region of the adrenal gland that produces steroid hormones; also called the suprarenal cortex.

adrenal cortex

The fibrous sac that surrounds the heart, and whose inner, serous lining is continuous with the epicardium.

pericardium

T lymphocytes that provide immunologic memory, enabling an enhanced immune response when reexposed to a specific antigen.

memory T cells

Fluid bathing the internal and external surfaces of the central nervous system; secreted by the choroid plexus.

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Gastric region between the body of the stomach and the duodenum; includes the pyloric sphincter.

pylorus

A region of the temporal lobe that is visible only after opening the lateral sulcus.

insula

Membrane that separates the external acoustic meatus from the middle ear; membrane whose vibrations are transferred to the auditory ossicles and ultimately to the oval window; the “eardrum.”

tympanic membrane

A thyroid hormone; also called T4 or tetraiodothyronine.

thyroxine

Impaired ability to comprehend written words.

dyslexia

One of the three primary germ layers; covers the surface of the embryo and gives rise to the nervous system, the epidermis and associated glands, and a variety of other structures.

ectoderm

The brain and spinal cord.

central nervous system (CNS)

The floor of the diencephalon; region of the brain containing centers involved with the unconscious regulation of visceral functions, emotions, drives, and the coordination of neural and endocrine functions.

hypothalamus

Sensory processes of a neuron.

dendrites

A disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); characterized by the destruction of helper T cells and a resulting severe impairment of the immune response.

acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Cells of the pancreatic islets that secrete insulin in response to increased blood sugar concentrations.

beta cells

A small erectile organ of the female that is the developmental equivalent of the male penis.

clitoris

A class of steroid sex hormones that includes estradiol.

estrogens

Region of the pharynx that lies superior to the soft palate.

nasopharynx

Cells of the gastric glands that secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor.

parietal cells

The medulla oblongata.

myelencephalon

The connective tissue framework of an organ; distinguished from the functional cells (parenchyma) of that organ.

stroma

A wave of smooth muscle contractions that propels materials along the lumen of a tube such as the digestive tract, the ureters, or the ductus deferens.

peristalsis

The thick layer of smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus.

myometrium

Blood that has been removed, stored, and then infused back into the same individual.

autologous transfusion

Secretory cells of the pineal gland.

pinealocytes

The ejection of semen from the penis as the result of muscular contractions of the bulbospongiosus and ischiocavernosus muscles.

ejaculation

Folds in the laryngeal wall containing elastic ligaments whose tension can be voluntarily adjusted; the true vocal cords, responsible for phonation.

vocal folds

Chamber that receives bile from the common bile duct and pancreatic secretions from the pancreatic duct.

duodenal ampulla

In the nervous system, the innervation of a single neuron by the axons from several neurons; this is most common along motor pathways.

convergence

An accessory gland of the male reproductive tract, contributing about one-third of the volume of semen.

prostate

Pain receptors.

nociceptors

An arteriole carrying blood away from the glomerulus of the kidney.

efferent arteriole

The occlusion of a blood vessel that supplies a portion of the brain, resulting in damage to the dependent neurons; also called stroke.

cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

Sensory cells of the internal ear.

hair cells

The portion of the metencephalon anterior to the cerebellum.

pons

Normal position of the uterus, with the superior surface bent forward.

anteflexion

Growth and the acquisition of increasing structural and functional complexity; includes the period from conception to maturity.

development

The smallest of the plasma proteins; function as transport proteins and important in contributing to plasma oncotic pressure.

albumins

Groove in the surface of a cerebral hemisphere, between the primary sensory and primary motor areas of the cortex.

central sulcus

Cranial nerves that control the extra-ocular muscles other than the superior oblique and the lateral rectus.

oculomotor nerves (N III)

Lymphoid nodules in the wall of the pharynx; the palatine, pharyngeal, and lingual tonsils.

tonsils

White blood cell formation.

leukopoiesis

The area monitored by a single sensory receptor.

receptive field

Ring-shaped cartilage that forms the inferior margin of the larynx.

cricoid cartilage

The scar tissue that remains after degeneration of the corpus luteum at the end of a uterine cycle.

corpus albicans

A hormone produced by hypothalamic cells and secreted into capillaries at the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis); stimulates smooth muscle contractions of the uterus or mammary glands in females and the prostate gland in males.

oxytocin

Red blood cell formation.

erythropoiesis

A surface antigen that may be present (Rh positive) or absent (Rh negative) from the surfaces of red blood cells.

Rh factor

An estimate of the number of each type of white blood cell on the basis of a random sampling of 100 white blood cells.

differential count

The portion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) that is immediately adjacent to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis) and the infundibulum.

pars intermedia

The portion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) that wraps around the infundibulum superior to the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis).

pars tuberalis

The processing centers for sensations that arrive from the vestibular apparatus of the internal ear, located near the border between the pons and the medulla oblongata.

vestibular nuclei

Transparent portion of the fibrous layer of the anterior surface of the eye.

cornea

A congenital condition resulting from the inadequate synthesis of one of the clotting factors.

hemophilia

A reflex with interneurons interposed between the sensory fiber and the motor neuron(s).

polysynaptic reflex

Slender conical projections from the dorsal surface of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue.

filiform papillae

Mucosal folds in the laryngeal walls that do not play a role in sound production; the false vocal cords.

vestibular folds

The roof of the mesencephalon of the brain.

tectum

Specialized cardiocytes that relay the contractile stimulus to the bundle of His, the bundle branches, the Purkinje fibers, and the ventricular myocardium; located at the boundary between the atria and ventricles.

atrioventricularnode (AV node)

The perilymph-filled chamber of the internal ear, adjacent to the vestibular membrane; pressure waves are induced by movement of the stapes at the oval window; also called vestibular duct.

scala vestibuli

A modified sympathetic ganglion that secretes catecholamines into the blood during sympathetic activation; the core of the adrenal gland; also called suprarenal medulla.

adrenal medulla

Descending tracts of the extrapyramidal system, carrying involuntary motor commands issued by the vestibular nucleus to stabilize the position of the head.

vestibulospinal tracts

Aggregation of red blood cells due to interactions between surface antigens and plasma agglutinins.

agglutination

Receptors that are sensitive to light.

photoreceptors

Lymphocytes responsible for cellular immunity, and for the coordination and regulation of the immune response; include regulatory T cells (helpers and suppressors) and cytotoxic (killer) T cells.

T cells

Nervous tissue in the posterior portion of the roof of the diencephalon, responsible for secreting melatonin.

pineal gland

A small bundle; usually refers to a collection of nerve axons or muscle fibers.

fasciculus

Paralysis of the upper and lower limbs.

quadriplegia

A layer of follicle cells surrounding an oocyte at ovulation.

corona radiata

The plasma membrane of an axon, continuous with the plasma membrane of the cell body and dendrites and distinct from any glial cell coverings.

axolemma

Activation process that must occur before a sperm can successfully fertilize an oocyte; occurs in the vagina following ejaculation.

capacitation

Chewing.

mastication

Blood vessels that supply the walls of large arteries and veins.

vasa vasorum

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, also called the anterior pituitary.

adenohypophysis

One of the corticosteroids secreted by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex; a glucocorticoid.

cortisol

Spermatic vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and the ductus deferens, extending between the testes and the proximal end of the inguinal canal.

spermatic cords

One of the three primary germ layers; the layer on the undersurface of the embryonic disc that gives rise to the epithelia and glands of the digestive system, the respiratory system, and portions of the urinary system.

endoderm

Fluid-filled chambers; in the heart, one of the large chambers discharging blood into the pulmonary or systemic circuits; in the brain, one of four fluid-filled interior chambers.

ventricles

Bundle of spinal nerve roots arising from the lumbosacral enlargement and medullary cone of the adult spinal cord; they extend caudally inside the vertebral canal en route to lumbar and sacral segments.

cauda equina

Sensory receptors in the skin, mucous membranes, and special sense organs that provide information about the external environment and our position within it.

exteroceptors

Isolation of the central nervous system, from the general circulation; primarily the result of astrocyte regulation of capillary permeabilities.

blood brain barrier (BBB)

The auditory ossicle attached to the tympanic membrane.

stapes

Small lobes or subdivisions of a lobe.

lobules

Receptors that have the ability to detect changes in the concentrations of dissolved compounds or gases, mainly CO2 and O2.

chemoreceptors

Thin-walled veins that receive blood from capillaries.

venules

Disintegration of an axon and its myelin sheath distal to an injury site.

wallerian degeneration

The region of the stomach surrounding its connection with the esophagus.

cardia

Supporting cells of the seminiferous tubules of the testis; responsible for the differentiation of spermatids, the maintenance of the blood testis barrier, and the secretion of inhibin, androgen-binding protein, and Müllerian-inhibiting factor; also called Sertoli cells.

nurse cells

Division of the pharynx inferior to the epiglottis and superior to the esophagus.

laryngopharynx

Touch receptors located within dermal papillae adjacent to the basement membrane of the epidermis; also called Meissner's corpuscles.

tactile corpuscles

Lymphoid organ, site of T cell development and maturation.

thymus

The outer part of the serous pericardium.

parietal layer of the serous pericardium

Neuroglia responsible for the neurilemma that surrounds axons in the peripheral nervous system.

Schwann cells

Collection of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system

ganglion/ganglia

The motor association area between the precentral gyrus and the prefrontal area.

premotor cortex

Chest pain.

angina

A division of the brain that includes the epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

diencephalon

Areas in the central nervous system dominated by nerve cell bodies, glial cells, and unmyelinated axons.

gray matter

The central auditory ossicle, situated between the malleus and the stapes in the middle ear cavity.

incus

Four small glands embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland that secrete parathyroid hormone.

parathyroid glands

fornix

White blood cells that are very numerous and normally the first of the mobile phagocytic cells to arrive at an area of injury or infection.

neutrophils

Pale region in the interior of lymphoid tissues or lymphoid nodules, where cell divisions occur that produce additional lymphocytes.

germinal center

The membranous labyrinth that contains the organs of hearing and equilibrium; also called inner ear.

internal ear

A mixture of buffers and digestive enzymes that is discharged into the duodenum under the stimulation of the enzymes secretin and cholecystokinin.

pancreatic juice

Middle, vascular layer in the wall of the eye.

choroid

The opening that permits fluid movement between the lateral and third ventricles.

interventricular foramen

Acetylcholine receptors on the surfaces of sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglion cells; respond to the compound nicotine.

nicotinic receptors

Phagocytic cells of the liver sinusoids; also called Kupffer cells.

stellate macrophages

The innermost layer of the eye, lining the vitreous chamber; also known as the inner layer.

retina

A closed sac connected to the cecum of the large intestine; also called vermiform appendix.

appendix

Hormone secreted by the pineal gland; inhibits secretion of MSH and GnRH.

melatonin

The simple squamous epithelium that lines the heart and is continuous with the endothelium of the great vessels.

endocardium

The female pudendum (external genitalia).

vulva

Pain resulting from compression of the roots of the sciatic nerve

sciatica

Heart attack; damage to the heart muscle due to an interruption of regional coronary circulation.

myocardial infarction (MI)

The stoppage of bleeding.

hemostasis

Inflammation of the urinary bladder.

cystitis

A newborn infant, or baby.

neonate

All nervous tissue outside the central nervous system.

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Inflammation of the urethra.

urethritis

The serous membrane that lines the wall of the pulmonary cavity.

parietal pleura

Gastric cells near the base of gastric glands that secrete pepsinogen.

chief cells

Mucous glands at the base of the penis that secrete into the penile urethra; the equivalent of the greater vestibular glands of females; also called Cowper's glands.

bulbo-urethral glands

Cells of the sinoatrial (SA) node that set the pace of cardiac contraction.

pacemaker cells

Supporting fibers that extend laterally from the surface of the spinal cord, tying the pia mater to the dura mater and providing lateral support for the spinal cord.

denticulate ligaments

Dural partition that separates the cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum.

tentorium cerebelli

A reflex where the sensory afferent synapses directly on the motor efferent.

monosynaptic reflex

The developmental stage beginning at fertilization and ending at the start of the third developmental month.

embryo

The granulocytes and agranulocytes of whole blood; also called leukocytes.

white blood cells (WBCs)

Cells of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system that support and protect neurons; also called glial cells.

neuroglia

Saclike pouches along the length of the large intestine that result from tension in the teniae coli.

haustra

The crossing point of the optic nerves.

optic chiasm

Bundle of axons linking centers in the left and right cerebral hemispheres.

corpus callosum

Lipid secretion that coats alveolar surfaces of the lungs and prevents their collapse.

surfactant

Membrane receptors sensitive to norepinephrine or epinephrine; stimulation usually results in excitation of the target cell.

alpha (α) receptors

A complex cartilaginous structure that surrounds and protects the glottis and vocal cords; the superior margin is bound to the hyoid bone and the inferior margin is bound to the trachea.

larynx

The proximal 25 cm (9.8 in.) of the small intestine that contains short villi and submucosal glands.

duodenum

The fertilized ovum prior to the start of cleavage.

zygote

A semifluid mixture of ingested food and digestive secretions that is found in the stomach as digestion proceeds.

chyme

The potential difference, measured across a plasma membrane and expressed in millivolts, that results from the uneven distribution of positive and negative ions across the plasma membrane; also called transmembrane potential.

membrane potential

Poorly localized centers in the reticular formation of the medulla of the brain; includes cardioacceleratory, cardioinhibitory, and vasomotor centers.

cardiovascular centers

The vein that carries blood from the parts of the body inferior to the heart to the right atrium.

inferior vena cava

A hormone, secreted by the duodenum, that stimulates the production of buffers by the pancreas and inhibits gastric activity.

secretin

Calcium carbonate crystals embedded in a gelatinous matrix; located on each macula of the vestibule.

otoliths

A plasma protein that is the soluble precursor of the insoluble protein fibrin.

fibrinogen

One of the basal nuclei involved with the subconscious control of skeletal muscular activity.

caudate nucleus

The proximal portion of the axon, adjacent to the axon hillock, where an action potential first appears.

initial segment

The fibrous strand found in the adult that is the remnant of the ductus arteriosus of the fetus.

ligamentum arteriosum

Vessels that connect an arteriole to a venule and provide blood to a capillary plexus.

metarterioles

Internal chamber in a tooth, containing blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and the cells that maintain the dentin.

pulp cavity

Openings in the roof of the fourth ventricle that permit the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid into the subarachnoid space.

lateral apertures

Fluid-filled chambers; in the heart, one of the large chambers discharging blood into the pulmonary or systemic circuits; in the brain, one of four fluid-filled interior chambers.

ventricles

Fluid bathing the internal and external surfaces of the central nervous system; secreted by the choroid plexus.

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Paralysis of the upper limbs.

paraplegia

Ring-shaped cartilages that form the inferior margin of the larynx.

cricoid cartilages

The largest chamber of the vestibular apparatus of the internal ear; contains a macula important for providing sensations of gravity and linear acceleration in a horizontal dimension.

utricle

The body of a neuron; also called soma.

cell body

Mucosal folds in the lining of the empty stomach that disappear as gastric distension occurs; folds in the urinary bladder.

ugae

Protein composed of four globular subunits, each bound to a single molecule of heme; the protein found in red blood cells that gives them the ability to transport oxygen in the blood.

hemoglobin (Hb)

Curving sheet of dura mater that extends between the two cerebral hemispheres; encloses the superior sagittal sinus.

falx cerebri

The progesterone-secreting mass of follicle cells that develops in the ovary after ovulation.

corpus luteum

Removal of the tonsil(s).

tonsillectomy

Components of the urinary system; organs that function in the regulation of blood composition, including the excretion of wastes and the maintenance of normal fluid and electrolyte balances.

kidneys

The distal portion of the rectum that contains the anal columns and ends at the anus.

anal canal

A layer of stratified squamous epithelium that covers the inner surfaces of the eyelids and the anterior surface of the eye to the edges of the cornea.

conjunctiva

A pair of small cartilages in the larynx.

cuneiform cartilages

The initial portion of the nephron, consisting of an expanded chamber that encloses the glomerulus.

renal corpuscle

Sensory nerve endings that contact special receptors called Merkel cells, located within the deeper layers of the epidermis; also called Merkel's discs.

tactile discs

The infectious agent that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

The S-shaped region of the colon between the descending colon and the rectum.

sigmoid colon

Blood clot.

thrombus

A weakening in the arterial wall causing an outpouching or enlargement of an artery.

aneurysm

Cranial nerves that provide sensory information from the lower portions of the face (including the upper and lower jaws) and deliver motor commands to the muscles of mastication (chewing).

trigeminal nerves (N V)

Secretion of the preputial glands of the penis or clitoris.

smegma

The primary motor cortex of a cerebral hemisphere, located anterior to the central sulcus.

precentral gyrus

Short duct that passes within the walls of the prostate and connect the ductus deferens with the prostatic urethra.

ejaculatory duct

Globular plasma proteins with a variety of important functions.

globulins

The movement of cells of the inner cell mass that creates the three primary germ layers of the embryo.

gastrulation

A hormone, produced by the pars intermedia of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis), that stimulates melanin production.

melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

hypothalamus

The innermost layer of the meninges bound to the underlying nervous tissue.

pia mater

Blood vessels carrying blood from capillary beds toward the heart.

veins

The enzyme released by cells of the juxtaglomerular complex when renal blood flow decreases; converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.

renin

Endolymph-filled tubes that enclose the receptors of the internal ear.

membranous labyrinth

A collection of visceral motor neurons outside the central nervous system.

autonomic ganglion

The vessel that carries blood from the intestinal capillaries to the sinusoids of the liver.

hepatic portal vein

Red bone marrow cells responsible for the formation of platelets.

megakaryocytes

The sense of taste.

gustation

Blood vessels carrying blood from capillary beds toward the heart

veins

An area of dead cells that results from an interruption of blood flow.

infarct

Site of communication between a nerve cell and some other cell; if the other cell is not a neuron, the term neuromuscular junction or neuroglandular junction is often used.

synapse

Lymphocytes involved in cell-mediated immunity that kill target cells by direct contact or by the secretion of lymphotoxins; also called killer T cells and TC cells.

cytotoxic T cells

Movement of white blood cells through the walls of blood vessels by migration between adjacent endothelial cells.

diapedesis

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, or pars nervosa; contains the axons of hypothalamic neurons, which release OXT and ADH.

neurohypophysis

A membrane that forms during development and coversthe entrance to the vagina.

hymen

Descending tracts that carry information/commands from the cerebral cortex to nuclei and centers in the brainstem.

corticobulbar tracts

One of the thyroid hormones.

triiodothyronine (T3)

The terminal portions of the intestinal tract, consisting of the colon, the rectum, and the anal canal.

large intestine

The extensive collection of lymphoid tissues linked with the epithelia of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts.

mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

To break down red blood cells.

hemolyze

The efferent division of the nervous system that innervates skeletal muscles.

somatic nervous system (SNS)

Coiled duct that connects the rete testis to the ductus deferens; site of functional maturation of sperm.

epididymis

A posterior tilting of the uterus that has no clinical significance.

retroflexion

Centers, nuclei, tracts, ganglia, and nerves involved in the unconscious regulation of visceral functions; includes components of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A chamber; in the internal ear, the term refers to the utricle, saccule, and semicircular ducts; also refers to (1) a region of the female external genitalia, (2) the space within the fleshy portion of the nose between the nostrils, and (3) the space between the ventricular folds and the vocal folds of the larynx.

vestibule

Blade-shaped flap of tissue, reinforced by cartilage, that is attached to the posterior and superior surface of the thyroid cartilage; it folds over the entrance to the larynx during swallowing.

epiglottis

Pertaining to the body.

somatic

Flap-like structure that maintains unidirectional blood flow.

valves

A localized region where blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, and/or other anatomical structures are attached to an organ.

hilum

Ascending tracts carrying sensory information to the cerebellum.

spinocerebellar tracts

Hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus and secreted at the posterior pituitary; causes water retention at the kidneys and an increase in blood pressure.

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Mass of erectile tissue that surrounds the urethra in the penis and expands distally to form the glans.

corpus spongiosum

Pertaining to viscera (internal organs) or their outer coverings.

visceral

The duodenum, jejunum, and ileum; the digestive tract between the stomach and large intestine.

small intestine

Membrane receptors sensitive to acetylcholine and to muscarine, a toxin produced by certain mushrooms; located at all parasympathetic neuromuscular and neuroglandular junctions and at a few sympathetic neuromuscular and neuroglandular junctions.

muscarinic receptors

The layer of the inner cell mass facing the amniotic cavity prior to gastrulation.

epiblast

Fluid bathing the internal and external surfaces of the central nervous system; secreted by the choroid plexus.

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Covered on all sides by the visceral peritoneum.

intraperitoneal

The primary sensory cortex, where touch, vibration, pain, temperature, and taste sensations arrive and are consciously perceived.

postcentral gyrus

The macula densa and the juxtaglomerular cells; a complex responsible for the release of renin and erythropoietin.

juxtaglomerular complex

Possessing half the normal number of chromosomes; a characteristic of gametes.

haploid

The yolk sac, amnion, chorion, and allantois.

extra-embryonic membranes

A dangling, fleshy extension of the soft palate.

uvula

The central membranous tube within the cochlea that is filled with endolymph and contains the spiral organ (organ of Corti); also called scala media.

cochlear duct

Thin-walled chambers of the heart that receive venous blood from the pulmonary or systemic circuits.

atria

The fold of dura mater extending across the sella turcica and hypophyseal fossa.

diaphragma sellae

Nervous tissue in the posterior portion of the roof of the diencephalon, responsible for secreting melatonin.

pineal gland

The pons and cerebellum of the brain.

metencephalon

The resistance to flow that a fluid exhibits as a result of molecular interactions within the fluid.

viscosity

Curving sheet of dura mater that projects forward from the internal occipital crest inferior to the tentorium.

falx cerebelli

The windpipe, an airway extending from the larynx to the primary bronchi.

trachea

Specialized membranes that line the vertebral canal and provide protection, stabilization, nutrition, and shock absorption to the spinal cord.

spinal meninges

One of 31 pairs of nerves that originate on the spinal cord from anterior and posterior roots.

spinal nerve

An expanded portion of a lactiferous duct adjacent to the nipple of a breast.

lactiferous sinus

A mulberry-shaped collection of cells produced through the mitotic divisions of a zygote.

morula

Inflammation of the tonsil(s).

tonsillitis

Hormone that stimulates the production and secretion of glucocorticoids by the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex; released by the anterior pituitary in response to CRF.

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Fleshy posterior extension of the hard palate, separating the nasopharynx from the oral cavity.

soft palate

One of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system; generally responsible for activities that conserve energy and lower the metabolic rate; the “rest and digest” division; also called craniosacral division.

parasympathetic division

The cardiac muscle tissue of the heart.

myocardium

The entry of blood into one of the pleural cavities.

hemothorax

The middle meninx (layer) that encloses cerebrospinal fluid and protects the central nervous system.

arachnoid mater

Nuclei of the cerebrum that are involved in the regulation of somatic motor activity at the subconcious level.

basal nuclei

Tonic muscle contraction in response to stimulation of muscle proprioceptors.

stretch reflex

Axons that carry sensory information to the central nervous system.

afferent fibers

The erosion of a blastocyst into the uterine wall.

implantation

Photoreceptors responsible for vision in dim lighting.

rods

The most important progestin secreted by the corpus luteum following ovulation.

progesterone

One of the three extra-embryonic membranes, composed of an inner layer of endoderm and an outer layer of mesoderm.

yolk sac

The outermost membrane (meninx) of the cranial and spinal meninges.

dura mater

The voiding of urine; micturition.

urination

An auditory ossicle, bound to the tympanic membrane and the incus.

malleus

A terminal lymphatic within an intestinal villus.

lacteal

See pituitary gland.

hypophysis

The division of the autonomic nervous system that is responsible for “fight or flight” reactions; primarily concerned with the elevation of metabolic rate and increased alertness; also called the thoracolumbar division.

sympathetic division

Cyclical changes in the uterine lining that occur in reproductive-age women. Each uterine cycle, which occurs in response to circulating hormones (see ovarian cycle), lasts 21–35 days.

uterine cycle

The crossing point of the optic nerves.

optic chiasm

The joining of two tubes, usually referring to a connection between two peripheral vessels without an intervening capillary bed.

anastomosis/anastomoses

Descending extrapyramidal tracts carrying involuntary motor commands issued by the colliculi.

tectospinal tracts

Margin of the cornea that is overlapped by the sclera.

corneoscleral junction

Region of the adrenal cortex that secretes glucocorticoids.

zona fasciculata

Chemicals that are secreted by one cell and travel through the bloodstream to affect the activities of cells in another part of the body.

hormones

Reproductive organs that produce gametes and sex hormones

gonads

Microfibrils in the cytoplasm of a neuron.

neurofibrils

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and related compounds.

catecholamines

The endocrine (ductless) glands and organs of the body.

endocrine system

The undersurface of the inner cell mass that faces the blastocoele of the early embryo.

hypoblast

The fertilized ovum prior to the start of cleavage.

zygote

Formation of a functional placenta following implantation of a blastocyst in the endometrium.

placentation

Areas in the central nervous system dominated by nerve cell bodies, glial cells, and unmyelinated axons.

gray matter

The middle meninx (layer) that encloses cerebrospinal fluid and protects the central nervous system.

arachnoid mater

Surgical delivery of an infant via an incision through the lower abdominal wall and uterus.

cesarean section

A granulocyte (WBC) with a lobed nucleus and red-staining granules; participates in the immune response and is especially important during allergic reactions.

eosinophils

A rapid, automatic response to a stimulus.

reflex

A bundle of postganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers distributed to effectors in the body wall, skin, and limbs by way of a spinal nerve.

gray ramus communicans

The largest portion of the brain, composed of the cerebral hemispheres; includes the cerebral cortex, the basal nuclei, and the internal capsule.

cerebrum

Fibrous cords that stabilize the position of the AV valves in the heart, preventing backflow during ventricular systole (contraction).

chordae tendineae

Lymphoid organ, site of T cell development and maturation.

thymus

Duct draining one lobe of the mammary gland.

lactiferous duct

A passageway that connects the nasopharynx with the middle ear cavity; also called the Eustachian tube or pharyngotympanic tube.

auditory tube

A mature ovarian follicle containing a large, fluid-filled chamber.

tertiary follicle

Phagocytic agranulocytes (white blood cells) in the circulating blood.

monocytes

The forebrain or cerebrum, including the cerebral hemispheres, the internal capsule, and the cerebral nuclei.

telencephalon

A thickened region of the choroid that encircles the lens of the eye; it includes the ciliary muscle and the ciliary processes that support the ciliary zonule of the lens.

ciliary body

Photoreceptosr responsible for sharp vision and color vision.

cones

Region between a developing oocyte and the surrounding follicular cells of the ovary.

zona pellucida

Enzymes that split peptide bonds and release amino acids.

peptidases

Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart and toward peripheral capillaries.

arteries

One of the extra-embryonic membranes; surrounds the developing embryo/fetus.

amnion

Fibrous extension of the dura mater and filum terminale; provides longitudinal stabilization to the spinal cord.

coccygeal ligament

A contractile structure made up of smooth muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye.

iris

GH–IH, a hypothalamic regulatory hormone that inhibits GH secretion by the anterior pituitary.

somatostatin

The vein that carries blood to the right atrium from parts of the body that are superior to the heart.

superior vena cava (SVC)

The tracts over which nerve impulses from the retinas are transmitted between the optic chiasm and the thalamus.

optic tracts

A portion of the vestibular apparatus of the internal ear; contains a macula important for providing sensations of gravity and linear acceleration in a vertical dimension.

saccule

One of the extra-embryonic membranes; it provides vascularity to the chorion and is therefore essential to placenta formation; the proximal portion becomes the urinary bladder.

allantois

Transport by way of axoplasm flow toward the cell body (retrograde) or toward the axon terminal (anterograde).

axoplasmic transport

Muscular tubes, lined by transitional epithelium, that carry urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder.

ureters

Reproductive cells (sperm or oocytes) that contain half the normal chromosome complement.

gametes

The main androgen produced by the interstitial endocrine cells of the testes.

testosterone

The medial of the three nuclei of the dorsal column.

gracile nucleus

A broad, flattened process that resembles the external ear; in the ear, the expanded, projecting portion that surrounds the external auditory meatus; also called pinna; in the heart, the externally visible flap formed by the collapse of the outer wall of a relaxed atrium.

auricle

See adrenal gland.

suprarenal gland

The large intestine from the cecum to the rectum.

colon

Groove(s) or furrow(s).

sulcus/sulci

The outer surface of a Schwann cell that encircles an axon in the peripheral nervous system.

neurolemma

Duodenal hormone that stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder and the secretion of enzymes by the exocrine pancreas; also called pancreozymin.

cholecystokinin

Crystalline material similar in mineral composition to bone, but harder and without osteocytes, that covers the exposed surfaces of the teeth.

enamel

To cross over to the opposite side, usually referring to the crossover of the descending tracts of the corticospinal pathway on the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata.

decussate

Region of the brain involved with language comprehension, located in the cortex of the dominant temporal lobe.

Wernicke's area

Blood vessels between the pulmonary semilunar valve of the right ventricle and the entrance to the left atrium; the blood flow through the lungs.

pulmonary circuit

The beginning of menstrual function.

menarche

Structure within the larynx that consists of the vocal folds and the rima glottidis.

glottis

One of the three main divisions of the nervous system; it is an extensive nerve network in the walls of the digestive tract that initiates and coordinates digestive motility and secretions.

enteric nervous system (ENS)

Descending tracts that carry motor commands from the cerebral cortex to the anterior gray horns of the spinal cord.

corticospinal tracts

Central nervous system neuroglia that maintains cellular organization within gray matter and provides a myelin sheath in areas of white matter.

oligodendrocyte

The superior and inferior colliculi of the mesencephalic tectum (roof) in the brain.

corpora quadrigemina

Conical projection from the inner surface of the duodenum that contains the opening of the duodenal ampulla.

duodenal papilla

Formation of fatty plaques in the walls of arteries, leading to circulatory impairment.

atherosclerosis

The bony roof of the oral cavity, formed by the maxillae and palatine bones.

hard palate

See erythrocytes.

red blood cells (RBCs)

Cells of the blastocyst that will form the body of the embryo.

inner cell mass

An abnormally low blood volume.

hypovolemic

Inflammation of the kidneys.

pyelonephritis

Connective tissue partition that separates adjacent bundles of nerve fibers in a peripheral nerve.

perineurium

Mucous glands in the vaginal walls that secrete into the vestibule; the equivalent of the bulbo-urethral glands of the male.

greater vestibular glands

Passages through the abdominal wall that mark the path of testicular descent and that contain the testicular arteries, veins, and ductus deferens.

inguinal canals

The 15 percent of nephrons whose nephron loops, or loops of Henle, extend into the medulla; these nephrons are responsible for creating the osmotic gradient within the medulla.

juxtamedullary nephrons

Segment of the nephron closest to the collecting tubule and duct; an important site of active secretion.

distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

Lymphoid organ that monitors the composition of lymph.

lymph node

A pair of small cartilages in the larynx.

arytenoid cartilages

The brain minus the cerebrum and cerebellum; midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

brainstem

Sympathetic ganglia located anterior to the spinal column and separate from the sympathetic chain.

collateral ganglia

The passage from the mouth to the pharynx, bounded by the palatal arches, the soft palate, and the uvula.

fauces

Layer of cells lining the ventricles and central canal of the central nervous system.

ependyma

The distal segment of the small intestine.

ileum

A group of specialized secretory cells that is located in a portion of the distal convoluted tubule, adjacent to the glomerulus and the juxtaglomerular cells; a component of the juxtaglomerular complex.

macula densa

Hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets; increases blood glucose concentrations.

glucagon

Elongate extension of a neuron that conducts an action potential away from the cell body and toward the synaptic terminals

axon

A narrow band of tissue connecting two larger masses.

isthmus

A connective tissue with a gelatinous matrix and an abundance of fibers.

cartilage

Ring of smooth muscle that regulates the passage of chyme from the stomach to the duodenum.

pyloric sphincter

The expanded initial portion of the nephron that surrounds the glomerulus; also called Bowman's capsule.

glomerular capsule

The cytoplasm that surrounds the nucleus in the cell body of a neuron.

perikaryon

Axons carrying information from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex.

projection fibers

Relative enlargement of the cervical portion of the spinal cord due to the abundance of central nervous system neurons involved with motor control of the arms.

cervical enlargement

Steroid hormones structurally related to cholesterol.

progestins

Blood cell formation and differentiation.

hemopoiesis

A small endocrine gland that secretes steroids and catecholamines and is located superior to each kidney; also called suprarenal gland.

adrenal gland

Steroid sex hormones mainly produced by the interstitial endocrine cells of the testis and manufactured in small quantities by the adrenal cortex in both sexes.

androgens

A localized dilation in the lumen of a canal or passageway.

ampulla

Aggregations of endocrine cells in the pancreas; also called islets of Langerhans.

pancreatic islets

Cytoplasm within an axon.

axoplasm

The elimination of fecal wastes.

defecation

The middle meninx (layer) that encloses cerebrospinal fluid and protects the central nervous system.

arachnoid mater

Meningeal space containing cerebrospinal fluid; the area between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.

subarachnoid space

The chamber on either side of the nasal septum.

nasal cavity

Collectively, the three layers of smooth muscle in the wall of the urinary bladder.

detrusor

Muscular organ of the female reproductive tract where implantation, placenta formation, and fetal development occur.

uterus

A hypothalamic releasing hormone that causes the secretion of both follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis).

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Corticosteroids produced by the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex; steroids such as aldosterone that affect mineral metabolism.

mineralocorticoids (MCs)

Cranial nerves, which innervate the lateral rectus muscle of the eye.

abducens nerves (N VI)

The gums.

gingivae

An increase in the diameter of arterioles due to the relaxation of smooth muscles in the tunica media; decreases peripheral resistance; may occur in response to local factors, through the action of hormones, or after decreased stimulation of the vasomotor center.

vasodilation

The ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria of the perikaryon of a typical neuron.

Nissl bodies

Space between the external and internal ear that contains auditory ossicles.

middle ear

The cytoplasm of the oocyte.

ooplasm

An organ of the digestive system with varied and vital functions that include the production of plasma proteins, the excretion of bile, the storage of energy reserves, the detoxification of poisons, and the interconversion of nutrients.

liver

A large fold of the dorsal mesentery of the stomach that hangs in front of the intestines.

greater omentum

The male gonads, sites of gamete production and hormone secretion; also called testicles.

testes

A sheet of mesentery that contains the ligamentum teres, the fibrous remains of the umbilical vein of the fetus.

falciform ligament

An internal passageway that begins at the mouth and ends at the anus.

digestive tract

A tapering, funnel-shaped structure; in the nervous system, refers to the connection between the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus; the infundibulum of the uterine tube is the entrance bounded by fimbriae that receives the oocyte at ovulation.

infundibulum

Lymphoid nodules beneath the epithelium of the small intestine. Also called Peyer's Patches.

aggregated lymphoid nodules

One complete heartbeat, including atrial and ventricular systole and diastole.

cardiac cycle

Posterior portion of the metencephalon, containing the cerebellar hemispheres; includes the arbor vitae, cerebellar nuclei, and cerebellar cortex.

cerebellum

An abnormally slow heart rate.

bradycardia

The formation of organs during embryological and fetal development.

organogenesis

The distal 15 cm (6 in.) of the digestive tract.

rectum

The attraction of phagocytic cells to the source of abnormal chemicals in tissue fluids.

chemotaxis

Inflammation of the esophagus.

esophagitis

Exocrine secretion of the liver that is stored in the gallbladder and ejected into the duodenum.

bile

Modified smooth muscle cells in the walls of the afferent and efferent arterioles adjacent to the glomerulus and the macula densa.

juxtaglomerular cells

The large, anterior portion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis).

pars distalis

Prominent folds or ridges of neural cortex on the surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres.

gyri

infundibulum

Later stage in the development of the inner cell mass; it includes the cells that will form the embryo.

blastodisc

A muscular tube extending between the uterus and the vestibule.

vagina

Region of the adrenal cortex that secretes mineralocorticoids.

zona glomerulosa

Abnormally rapid heart rate, usually over 90 beats per minute

tachycardia

pituitary gland

Circulating transport globulin that binds thyroid hormones.

thyroglobulin

See serous membrane.

serosa

Superficial layer of the blastocyst that will be involved with implantation, hormone production, and placenta formation.

trophoblast

A delicate network of connective tissue fibers that surrounds individual nerve fibers.

endoneurium

The hormone that stimulates functional development of the mammary glands in females; a secretion of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis).

prolactin (PRL)

Basic functional units of the kidneys.

nephrons

Membrane receptors sensitive to epinephrine; stimulation may result in excitation or inhibition of the target cell.

beta (β) receptors

The thalamic nuclei involved in the integration of sensory information prior to projection to the cerebral hemispheres.

pulvinar nuclei

Endocrine cells scattered among the epithelial cells lining the digestive tract.

enteroendocrine cells

An elongated ventricle of the metencephalon (pons and cerebellum) and the myelencephalon (medulla oblongata) of the brain; the roof contains a region of choroid plexus.

fourth ventricle

A porphyrin ring containing a central iron atom that can reversibly bind oxygen molecules; a component of the hemoglobin molecule.

heme

White blood cells containing granules that are visible with the light microscope; includes eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils; also called granulocytes.

granular leukocytes

The outermost membrane (meninx) of the cranial and spinal meninges.

dura mater

Changes in activity that maintain homeostasis in direct response to changes in the local environment; does not require neural or endocrine control.

autoregulation

Population of T lymphocytes that suppress the immune response.

regulatory T cells

A small pocket in the mesentery that connects the lesser curvature of the stomach to the liver.

lesser omentum

One of the four types of neuroglia in the central nervous system; responsible for maintaining the blood brain barrier by the stimulation of endothelial cells.

astrocytes

Urination.

micturition

The walls of the diencephalon.

thalamus

A hormone secreted by the anterior lobe of the pituitary; stimulates oogenesis (female) and spermatogenesis (male).

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Coiled tubules where sperm production occurs in the testis

seminiferous tubules

Anterior pituitary hormone that triggers the secretion of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

A component of the male external genitalia; a copulatory organ that surrounds the urethra and introduces semen into the female vagina; the developmental equivalent of the female clitoris.

penis

Hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets; causes a decrease in blood glucose concentrations.

insulin

The process of embryo formation.

embryogenesis

A nonfunctional packet of cytoplasm containing chromosomes eliminated from an oocyte during meiosis.

polar body

Condition resulting from excessive production or inadequate drainage of cerebrospinal fluid.

hydrocephalus

A large, branching neuron of the cerebellar cortex.

Purkinje cell layer

A tubular duct that carries pancreatic juice from the pancreas to the duodenum.

pancreatic duct

Hardening of the arteries.

arteriosclerosis

Surgical opening of the anterior tracheal wall to permit airflow.

tracheostomy

Centers, nuclei, tracts, ganglia, and nerves involved in the unconscious regulation of visceral functions; includes components of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Peritoneal pocket between the anterior surface of the rectum and the posterior surface of the uterus.

recto-uterine pouch

The hormone produced by the activation of angiotensinogen by renin; angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II in lung capillaries.

angiotensin I

Stem cells whose divisions produce each of the various populations of blood cells; also called hemocytoblasts.

hematopoietic stem cells

Spiral portion of the bony labyrinth of the internal ear that surrounds the organ of hearing.

cochlea

A dense investment of collagen fibers that surrounds a peripheral nerve.

epineurium

The bony central hub of the cochlea.

modiolus

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