FLE Missed Flashcards
(128 cards)
1
Q
Which statement is NOT true of PRIONS?
- They can be inherited
- They convert normal proteins into pathogenic proteins
- They can cause pathology in nearly every organ of the body
- They can be acquired through consumption of contaminated food
A
4
The correct answer is 4 because pathology is only observed in the CNS of the infected person or animal
Although prion infections are usually associated with consumption of contaminated meat, they also can be inherited and encoded in a person’s DNA
Prions convert normal proteins of the brain into pathogenic ones
This conversion is exponential and does take years to decades to complete
2
Q
Which of the following bacterial populations would have the greatest size after 24 hours?
A) 10 cells with a doubling time of 8 hours
B) 100 cells with a doubling time of 12 hours
C) 1 cell with a doubling time of 2 hour
D) 1000 cells with a doubling time of 24 hours
A
C
- C is the correct answer since in a 24 hour period it will have 12 doubling times if it doubles every 2 hours*
- Therefore 1 cell will grow exponentially to* 4096 cells
- Answer A will have 4 doubling times in 24 hours. 10 cells will grow to 20, then 40, then 80, and finally 160
- Answer B will only have 2 doubling times in its 24 hour period. 100 cells will double to 200 and then to 400 cells
- Lastly, answer D will only double once in a 24 hour period resulting in 2000 cells.
3
Q
Which event is an example of bacterial conjugation?
- A) A virus transferring the DNA for a toxin from Shigella dysenteriae to Escherichia coli
- B) The lysing of Escherichia coli cells and the DNA being picked up by Shigella dysenteriae
- C) The passage of RNA from Staphylococcus aureus cells to another strain of Staphylococcus aureus through a pilus
- D) The passage of DNA from Escherichia coli to Shigella dysenteriae through a pilus
A
D
- D is the correct answer because the definition of bacterial conjugation is the passage of foreign DNA through a pilus*
- pilus =a hairlike appendage found on the surface of many bacteria*
- Answer A describes transduction, which is the movement of foreign DNA from one cell to another via a phage
- Answer B is describing transformation, which is the picking up of naked DNA from the environment
- Answer C is also describing the passage of nucleic acid through a pilus, but only DNA is passed and not RNA
4
Q
An increase in CHOLESTEROL has what impact on the plasma membrane?
A) increased membrane fluidity
B) increased solute transport across the membrane
C) decreased membrane fluidity
D) decreased solute transport across the membrane
A
A
- This question is asking you to recall knowledge about the fluid mosaic model (see pic)*
- Cholesterol is an important part of plasma membranes*
- It adds vital fluidity by disrupting the stacking of the lipid tails forming the membrane*
- By disrupting the stacking, the lipids can move more freely, and other molecules, such as trans-membrane proteins, can move about*
- C is incorrect because cholesterol is adding fluidity, not decreasing it
- B and D are incorrect because cholesterol does not impact solute transport across membranes
- However, you can also reach the answer rationally by looking at the figure of cholesterol and imagining how it might look within the lipid bilayer*
- It is very hydrophobic, so it will interact with the lipid tails, but it is also made of multiple planar rings, so it will not stack neatly with the long carbon chains*
- Since it doesn’t fit neatly into the membrane, it will increase movement.*
5
Q
Based on the data in Figure 2, what is a normal cellular progesterone level?
A) 0.19 ng/ml
B) 0.36 ng/ml
C) 38 ng/ml
D) 0.38 ng
A
B
- The “normal” cells for this experiment are tested in the first lane, without cAMP or CCCP added*
- From the information given in Experiment 1, you can see that progesterone is labeled P4, which tells you that the chart above the graph has the data about progesterone concentration*
- For lane 1, the progesterone level is 0.3 +/- 0.1 ng/ml, giving you a range of 0.2-0.4 ng/ml*
A is incorrect because 0.19 ng/ml is outside that range
C is incorrect because 38 ng/ml is too large
This might be distracting, however, if you assume that the bar graph is telling you the progesterone concentration, since the bar for lane 1 is at approximately 38
Make sure when looking at a figure that gives multiple types of data that you know which data is coming from where
D is incorrect because 0.38 ng is not a concentration, it is merely a mass
6
Q
H2O2 vs O2
Bond STRENGTH roughly correlates with bond….?
A
ORDER!
O2 is (+2)
H2O2 is (+1)
Therefore O-O bond in O2 is stronger
7
Q
“Chelation”=?
A
“Chelation” describes a particular way that
ions and molecules
bind METAL IONS
Specifically: involves the formation or presence of two or more separate coordinate bonds between a multiple-bonded ligand and a single central atom
8
Q
WHAT is the primary type of attraction that:
facilitates complimentary base pair matching?
What other kind of attraction can occur if this primary type is present?
A
H-bonding
is the primary type of attraction that facilitates complimentary base pair matching
Van der Waals attraction will also occur if molecules are hydrogen bound.
9
Q
What is the synthetic purpose of the thermal decomposition of azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN) in Step 2a?
- A) two tertiary free radicals for the functionalization of CRGO in Step 2b
- B) radical cations for the nucleophilic attack of CRGO in Step 2b.
- C) a stable diatomic nitrogen molecule.
- D)heat, to increase reaction rate.
A
A
A correct; tertiary radicals are most easily formed
- B is incorrect; the radicals formed are neutral
- C the byproducts are irrelevant to the further reactions
- D Branched vs. unbranched carbon chains presents no strong advantage to subsequent steps nor to the function of the biosensor.
10
Q
In which solvent is P4 LEAST soluble?
A) H2O
B) CH3CH2OH
C) CH3COCH3
D) C6H6
A
A
- P4 is nonpolar; all bond dipole moments “cancel” each other out
- Water should be immediately recognized as the most polar of all solvents in choices A-D, and hydrocarbons as the least polar
- Alcohols are of intermediate polarity
- Answer C is a ketone, which is relatively non-polar, but more polar than benzene, Answer D
Therefore, the most polar, and therefore LEAST likely to dissolve P4 among the choices listed is water, Answer A
11
Q
What are the most likely sources of human dietary PHOSPHORUS?
A)protein and hydroxyappetite
B)protein and amino bisphosphonate
C)DNA and RNA
D)phosphoric acid and calcium
A
C
- Nucleic acids are dietary sources of phosphorus due to the presence of the phosphate backbone*
- RNA and DNA are nucleic acids*
- Although “Diets rich in protein and calcium” were mentioned as diets that would likely meet phosphorus requirements, protein and calcium do not themselves contain any phosphorus
- A is incorrect because proteins do not contain phosphorus
- there are no biological amino acids that incorporate protein
12
Q
What is the EMPIRICAL formula for HYDROXYAPATITE?
A
Ca5(PO4)3OH
13
Q
A) Pi electrons of the phenyl ring and the tertiary hydrogen
B) Pi electrons of the cyclohexenyl ring and the methyl group
C) Hydroxyl groups, epoxide oxygen lone pairs, and nitrogen lone pair
D) Only the lone pairs of the epoxide oxygen
A
C
- For complex formation between a molecule and an antigen binding fragment, or for almost any binding interaction described in biochemistry, the interactions are intermolecular in nature*
- In other words, the process is not breaking and forming new covalent bonds, but causing attractions between molecules to hold them into a binding site*
- Further, hydrogen bonding is the most widely used and strongest of the intermolecular forces
- There are four locations on morphine that can participate in H-bonds:
- the two hydroxyl groups (donors or acceptors)
- the lone pair on the epoxide oxygen (H-bond acceptor only)
- the lone pair on nitrogen (H-bond acceptor only)
14
Q
In which concentration range would the paper-based lateral-flow test strip be most effective as a quantitative tool for predicting blood morphine levels based on test line intensity?
A) 1.0 – 100 ng/mL
- because the color intensity is highest over this range
B) 1.0 – 100 ng/mL
- because the difference between test and control line intensities is positive and has the greatest magnitude
C) 0.1 – 1.0 ng/mL
- because over this range the control test line color intensity is the most consistent
D) 0.1 – 1.0 ng/mL
- because over this range the intensity vs. morphine concentration plot has the greatest slope
A
D
- For a test to be a good candidate for quantitative measurements, (as opposed to qualitative test where the goal is to determine “morphine present” or “morphine absent”)
- the observable response must:*
_VARY SUBSTANTIALLY_ and in a CONSISTENT DIRECTION
In the 0.1 to 1.0 ng/mL region:
- the relative color intensity increases from about 1 to 25 in near-linear fashion
- ΔYaverage per ΔX can be estimated to see that this range has a large slope compared to the other regions.
15
Q
- If a sample is analyzed and the line intensity registers a relative color intensity of 15, what is the approximate molarity of morphine in the sample?*
- The molecular formula of morphine is C17H19NO3*
- HINT: MW=285 g*
A) 2.4 × 10–12 M
B)2.5 × 10–9 M
C) 2.4 × 10–6 M
D) 1.1 × 10–9 M
A
B
- In Figure 4, a relative color intensity of 15 corresponds to a morphine concentration of 0.7 ng/mL*
- If one round 285 grams to 3 x 102 grams, the calculation becomes:
(7 x 10-1 ng/mL)
X (1 g/ 109 ng)
X (1 mol/3 x 102 g)
X (1 x 103 mL/L)
= 2.33 × 10–9 M
16
Q
See picture
A
∆G’ = ∆G°’ + RTln [Products]/[Reactants]
=0.4 + (8.31)(310)(ln[0.01])
17
Q
A PEPTIDE BOND differs from
most OTHER chemical bonds in that it features….?
What does this feature PREVENT?
A
RESONANCE between the C-O and C-N bonds
PREVENTING
FREE
ROTATION!!!
18
Q
When a SPRINTER is running:
What is the SOURCE of the work done to accelerate Sprinter?
A
The GROUND is doing work on the SPRINTER
By definition, the force doing work on an object must be a force ON the object
- The GROUND is exerting a force ⇒ runner*
- Runner’s LEGS are exerting a force ⇒ ground*
19
Q
A certain medical device converts the KE of high-velocity metal beads into HEAT energy
If 100% conversion efficiency were possible:
What MAXIMUM theoretical heat energy can be produced by a single chromium bead with:
- a VOLUME of 1.0 x 10-4 cm3
- a VELOCITY of 2.0 x 104 m/s?
(Density of Cr = 7,140 kg/m3)
A
1.4 x 102 J
Begin with the formula KE = 1/2mv2
- Density = mass/volume
- so mass = density*volume
- Substituting mass into the first equation we get:
KE = (0.5)(density)(volume)(velocity)2
However!!
- Volume is given in cm3
- and must be converted to m3
Using dimensional analysis:
1x10-4 cm3 x (1m/100cm)3
= 1.0 x 10-10 m3
Now one can simply solve:
=½(7.1 x 103 kg/m3)(1.0 x 10-10 m3)(2.0 x 104m/s)2
This simplifies to:
= (3.5 x 103)(1 x 10-10)(4.0 x 108)
- = (3.5 x 10-7)(4.0 x 108)
- = 14 x 101
- = 1.4 x 102 Joules
- = 14 x 101
20
Q
For an acid-base equilibrium at
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE:
which of the values listed is CONSTANT?
A) pH
B) Concentration of the conjugate base
C) Concentration of the weak acid
D) pKa
A
D
pKa is the ONLY constant among the answers
The acid-base equilibrium constant, Ka, is a constant for a GIVEN REACTION at a GIVEN TEMPERATURE
…Therefore the negative log of that constant would ALSO be a constant!
The pH of the solution is dependent on the concentration of acid and base in the equilibrium
- making Answer A incorrect
The concentration of both the acid and the conjugate base can VARY depending on the reaction
- making both Answer B and C incorrect
21
Q
Titrating aqueous AMMONIA with HCl
would produce a titration curve that looks like WHAT?
A
- Hydrochloric acid is a STRONG acid,*
- while ammonia is a WEAK base*
Because the titration starts out with
just the weak base present:
we need a plot that starts out basic, but not strongly basic
22
Q
In the synthesis of tri-substituted oxazolidines the ACETYLENE acts as a:
A) Bronsted acid
B) Bronsted base
C) Lewis acid
D) Lewis base
A
C
The acetylenes contain an electron-deficient pi-systems making the double bond ELECTROPHILIC and susceptible to nucleophilic attack
23
Q
“During normal growth, SOS pathway genes are repressed by LexA, which binds to the SOS box in the operator on either the coding strand or the template strand of the gene”
Q: The nucleotide sequence of the SOS box is most likely:
A) GAACGTTC
B) TATAAA
C) TAGTTGAT
D) GCGCCC
A
A
- In the passage, it was stated that LexA can bind to either the coding strand or the template strand of the SOS box
This tells you that the SOS box must be a PALINDROME!
- Remember that DNA sequence palindromes read the same 5’-3’ on BOTH sides
In answer A, 5’- GAACGTTC- 3’
the compliment strand is 3’ –CTTGCAAG- 5’
…which is IDENTICAL when read 5’-3’
24
Q
- Suppose a person holds a mass m in their hand*
- with their elbow bent and their forearm*
- in a neutral horizontal position*
- If both muscle groups are flexed simultaneously, the system will be in equilibrium when the triceps muscle group exerts a force equal to:*
A) exactly 80m
B) one-half the force exerted by the biceps muscle group.
C) twice the force exerted by the biceps muscle group.
D) less than twice the force exerted by the biceps muscle group
A
D
When a person holds a mass steady with a bent elbow, the forearm is PREVENTED from moving either up or down
The MASS also acts DOWN on the forearm
at a lever arm of 40cm
The forearm itself has mass!
which can be assumed to act downward at approximately the center of the forearm
Therefore the bicep must counteract:
- the torque due to the weight of the mass
- torque due to the weight of the forearm itself
- whatever force/torque the tricep is exerting
- Therefore, when in equilibrium the tricep must be exerting LESS than twice the force of the bicep—
due to the co-directional torque resulting from mass m
25
What aspect of the **BF3** molecule
makes it a **Lewis acid?**
_In the Lewis structure of_ BF3:
**Boron only has access to *6* electrons**
...instead of the ***8*** necessary to make a (*_desired_*!) **OCTET**
*Therefore it is a Lewis Acid*
***VERY WILLING TO _ACCEPT_ ELECTRONS***
*from an electron pair donor (Lewis Base)*
26
At physiological conditions, the autoionization constant of water (Kw) is slightly above 1 x 10-14
_If **TEMPERATURE** is **increased** by a factor of **FOUR**_
_and **PRESSURE** is **INCREASED** to **25** MPa:_
Kw is **INCREASED** by a factor of ***100***
Q: *How does the **pH of water** at this elevated temperature and pressure **differ** from pH under **physiological** conditions?*
***IT*** ***_DECREASES_*** ***BY*** ***ONE pH UNIT***
_At room temp:_**Kw = 1 x 10-14**
This value **increases** by a factor of **100**
* which would be **100 x 10–14***
* or **1 x 10–12***
_At the conditions stated in the problem:_
* *[H+][OH –] = 1 x 10–12*
* AND ***[H+] = 10–6 M***
From this we see that **pH = 6**
(pH has **decreased** by one pH unit)
27
Do Newton's Laws also apply to **SPRINGS?**
YES!
28
*Many dynamometers employ a spring to provide resistance as grip strength is assessed*
## Footnote
* Q: If the dynamometer measures a force of **500 N** after the spring is compressed **4 cm**, how much **potential spring energy** is stored in the system?*
* A) 10 J*
B) 20 J
C) 100 J
D) 200 J
**A**
## Footnote
_First deduce the **spring constant, k**_
Hooke’s law: F = kx
* k = F/x
* = 500N/0.04m
* ***= 12500 N/m***
_Then use the formula PE_spring _= ½ kx_2
PEspring = ½ (**12500**) (0.04)2 = ***10 J***
29
*When a **repair** sequence is first **joined** to the **undamaged** _portion of the DNA during **homologous recombination:**_*
The **JUNCTION points**
between **damaged** and **undamaged** DNA
form a temporary **four-stranded moiety** known as a...?
Holliday Junction
## Footnote
*a Holliday junction is a branched nucleic acid structure where four double-stranded domains are joined together. Holliday junctions are an **intermediate** in genetic recombination*
30
**Pt2+, NH3 Cl–**
## Footnote
*Lewis ACID or Lewis BASE?*
**Pt2+** is a Lewis **acid**
**NH3** and **Cl–** are Lewis **bases**
31
*A study reports that the majority of patient falls in which the patient strikes a hard ground surface with a velocity **less** than or **equal to 5.0 m/s** do **NOT** result in serious fractures or other injuries*
Q: Ignoring air resistance, falls from **which** height are **UNLIKELY** to cause injury?
A) 0.5 m
B) 1.25 m
C) 2.5 m
D) 5.0 m
**B**
## Footnote
* One can use **v = √2gh** to solve this problem, OR
You can simply intuit that if a **Vfinal** of only **5m/s** is attained, the person could **only** have been in free fall for:
* ***HALF* *A SECOND!***
* *****Because one **FULL** second of free fall changes velocity from **0 ⇒ 10 m/s***
*∴ traveling at an **AVERAGE** velocity of **2.5 m/s** for **0.5 seconds** gives a fall distance of **1.25 m**, or Answer B*
32
*γ-Hydroxybutanoic acid (GHB) is commonly known as the “date rape” drug*
***HO-CH2CH2CH2-COOH***
GHB metabolism involves **TWO oxidations**
1. First by an **alcohol** dehydrogenase
2. Then by an **aldehyde** dehydrogenase
*Q: If one equivalent of each enzyme is available, the **FINAL** structure of the metabolite will be...?*
γ-Hydroxybutyric acid has the structure:
**HO-CH2CH2CH2-COOH**
_Alcohol dehydrogenase oxidizes the alcohol to give:_
**⇒ HOOC-CH2CH2-CHO ⇒**
_Aldehyde dehydrogenase oxidizes the aldehyde to give:_
**HOOC-CH2CH2-COOH**
33
One of the major accomplishments of the **SENSORIMOTOR** stage is the acquisition of.....?
Object Permanence
34
During the **PREOPERATIONAL** stage, children acquire \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_and engage in _____ \_\_\_\_
Acquire **LANGUAGE**
Engage in **PRETEND PLAY**
35
During the **CONCRETE OPERATIONAL** stage, children acquire both _______ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
**CONSERVATION** and **REASONING**
36
During **DIASTOLE**, the heart is not _______ ;
all chambers are \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
During diastole, the heart is **NOT CONTRACTING**;
all chambers are **RELAXED**
**(FILLING WITH BLOOD)**
37
If something is "**FEMINIZED**,"
that just means that.....?
*Use Poverty as an example*
If something is "feminized,"
that just means that
**MORE women are doing it**
(in this case, more women are living in poverty means poverty is eing "feminized")
38
Deuterium has an extra ______ compared to the 1H proton, and thus a larger at *WHAT?*
## Footnote
***As a result, how does D2O compare to H2O?***
Deuterium has an **extra neutron** compared to the 1H proton,
and thus a **larger atomic mass**
As a result, deuterium oxide must have a **different molecular weight** than water
39
**Phosphorylation** is a common mechanism for doing *WHAT* to an **enzyme?**
Phosphorylation is a common mechanism for
**activating** or **inactivating** an enzyme
40
*What is the **most likely** explanation for how **PHOSPHORYLATION** influences*
**activation** or **inactivation**?
The **CHARGE** on the phosphate:
**creates a repulsive interaction**, resulting in a **conformational change in the enzyme**
41
A pro-inflammatory cytokine cannot work **ANTAGONISTICALLY**against
**another** pro-inflammatory cytokine *BECAUSE?*
Becuase they will both
## Footnote
**stimulate inflammation**
42
Why can't an **anti-**inflammatory
cytokine work **SYNERGISTICALLY**
with a **pro**-inflammatory cytokine?
Because one **decreases** (anti)
and
one **increases** (pro) inflammation
43
Can **Pro-**inflammatory cytokines can **work together** (synergistically)?
**YES!**
but that would only increase inflammation further
44
**ANTI**-inflammatory cytokines are often **UP**regulated in the presence of **increased** ***WHAT?***
Why is this?
In the presence of **PRO**-inflammatory
cytokine production
because **antagonists** control the amount of inflammation produced
45
During prolonged strenuous exercise, _____ produced by **anaerobic** glycolysis is transported to the \_\_\_\_\_\_, where it is converted to _____ and eventually metabolized
* This metabolism involves the conversion of _____ to _____ in the LIVER and metabolism of ______ in the MUSCLE
During prolonged strenuous exercise, **lactate** produced by anaerobic glycolysis is transported to the liver
where it is **converted to glucose** and eventually **metabolized**. This process involves the conversion of:
lactate to glucose in the liver and metabolism of glucose in the muscle.
46
The **anomeric** position of a sugar is an "\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_"
The anomeric position of a sugar is an **invertible epimer**
47
The mechanism of β-galactosidase is known to be a **double displacement hydrolysis**
Given this information, what is the most likely stereochemical outcome for the **anomeric** position of β-galactosidase?
**retained**
## Footnote
A **displacement** reaction generally **inverts** stereochemical configuration, such as in an SN2 reaction.
A **double displacement** hydrolysis would involve **two** sequential inversions of configuration
*which would lead to an overall **retention** of configuration*
48
* Some accelerometers use **springs** rather than electrical current to measure acceleration
* In a device designed to measure **left-right acceleration only**, a spring, free-floating seismic mass, and transducer are arranged as shown below
_*If the net acceleration of the seismic mass is to the **RIGHT**,*_
_*how do the forces of the spring and the transducer on the seismic mass **compare**?*_
* The force of the spring on the seismic mass is larger than the force of the transducer on the seismic mass
* The force of the transducer on the seismic mass is larger than the force of the spring on the seismic mass.
* The forces of the spring and the transducer on the seismic mass are equal according to Newton’s Third Law
* The forces of the spring and the transducer on the seismic mass are equal according to Newton’s First Law.
**The force of the spring on the seismic mass is LARGER than the force of the transducer on the seismic mass**
TDLR: Since accel (caused by **spring**) of mass is greater than the acceleration caused by transducer, the force of the spring must **ALSO** be greater ("O.S.D.")
*For this problem you must consider the **forces acting on the seismic mass***
_There are only **two** forces:_
1. the force from the **spring** which is pushing it to the **right**
2. the force from the **transducer** which is pushing it to the **left**
* Because the stem says specifically that the device is accelerating to the **right**,*
* the system is **NOT** in equilibrium*
**∴ The Fnet must ALSO be to the RIGHT**
**This means that Fspring \> Ftransducer**
49
*A new bacteria is discovered that utilizes a novel nucleotide, designated as H.*
***H has replaced guanine** in the bacteria’s genome and* ***base pairs with cytosine.***
_This bacteria is highly **successful** at evading the host’s immune defenses because:_
A) The bacteria’s genome will not be recognized by antibodies because the host is unfamiliar with the H nucleotide
B) Due to the dramatic change in genome structure, the bacteria produces new proteins which are undetectable to the innate immune system
C) Restriction endonucleases that target non-self DNA molecules and degrade them have very specific cleavage sites, and the H substitution disrupts this functionality
D) The new nucleotide alters the surface proteins of the bacteria to mimic host cell proteins, enabling the bacteria to utilize cell surface receptors and enter the cell undetected
***C***
* The newly discovered bacteria has a genome that **uses ATCH instead of ATCG**, but no other changes are listed
* H basepairs with C, so you can assume that it behaves **in most respects just like G does**
* C is correct because one way that organisms fight invaders is **through restriction endonucleases**
* ****that recognize DNA sequences in genomes that are **“non-self.”**
* These endonucleases have very **specific restriction sites**
* (because it would be very dangerous to have endonucleases **without** specific sites, since they could cleave **any** DNA)
*If an endonuclease recognizes CATATG, it will **NOT** recognize CATATH*
* Even though this sequence is still a palindrome (when double stranded), the endonuclease will **“read” H differently** than G and will **not** cleave that DNA
* Then the bacteria can **continue** replicating within that cell, and the infection can spread
50
A typical blood bicarbonate concentration is **26 mM**
What must the carbonic acid concentration be to achieve a pH of 7.0
if the Ka for carbonic acid at physiological temperature is **9.94 ×10–7?**
*Use Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:*
**pH = pKa + log( [HCO3] / [H2CO3] )**
First, **convert the Ka given to pKa**
*Just round the Ka up to 10*
**pKa = -logKa**
**pKa** = -log(10 x 10-7)
* = -log(1 x 10-6) = **6**
* **7.0** = **6.0** + log(26mM/x)
**1.0** = log(26mM/x)
or 26mM/x = 1 x 101
or 26mM/x = **10**
***x = 26mM/10**, therefore **x = 2.6***
51
What does the term "**ANHYDRASE"** imply wrt what's happening in the reaction?
“anhydrase” implies
**removal of water**
52
*What effect would consumption of a carbonated beverage **(which leads to excess CO2**) have on blood pH in the **absence of carbonic anhydrase** ("anhydrase"=removal of water)?*
The pH of the system at **equilibrium** would be *WHAT* compared to if carbonic anhydrase (which is an **enzyme/catalyst**) were present?
the pH would be the **SAME** as it would have been if the enzyme were present
Carbonic anhydrase, being an enzyme, is a **catalyst, which speed up** a reaction,
* ....but does **NOT!!!** change the equilibrium concentrations of*
* reactants and products*
53
**5’ GGAUCCUGAAC 3’**
## Footnote
* *Suppose the RNA strand shown is a segment of **viral genomic DNA***
* *Using this RNA as a template, the enzyme **reverse transcriptase** would produce which of the following nucleotide polymers?*
**A) 3’ CCUAGGACUUG 5’
B) 5’ GGATCCTGAAC 3’
C) 5’ GUUCAGGAUCC 3’ 3’ CAAGUCCUAGG 5’
D) 5’ GTTCAGGATCC 3’**
5’ GGAUCCUGAAC 3’
**D) 5’ GTTCAGGATCC 3’**
* To answer this question, you have to remember that reverse transcriptase is an **RNA dependent DNA polymerase**
* as such, it will generate a **DNA** molecule!*
* This means that the answer **must contain “T” instead of “U”**
* It must also be **_COMPLIMENTARY_** to the genomic DNA given in the question,*
* 5’ GGAUCCUGAAC 3’*
* Answer D is the complimentary DNA strand to the RNA strand given
54
Suppose a molecule composed of atoms A and B features a **PERMANENT DIPOLE**
This dipole is mostly likely the result of *WHAT* wrt **electrons** in the molecule?
**UNSYMMETRICAL/ UNEQUAL** **DISTRIBUTIONS**
of electrons within the molecule
55
What is most likely to occur in mesophilic proteins at high temperatures?
The mesophilic proteins will likely become:
**A) denatured due to a loss of primary structure**
**B) denatured due to the melting of hydrogen bonds**
**C) denatured due to the breaking disulfide bonds**
**D) altered due to an adaptive change in quaternary structure**
*HINT: Mesophiles= organisms that live in **moderate** environments*
B
Mesophiles are organisms that live in **moderate** environments
* As such, they have **not adapted to high temperatures**
* B is correct because temperatures above the melting point of a protein will cause **denaturation**
* *****which will **melt the hydrogen bonds** that hold secondary and tertiary structure together*
* C is incorrect because **disulfide bonds** are also **COVALENT**
* ****so will **not be affected** by heat
56
Does **VELOCITY** change an object's **INERTIA?**
**NO!!!**
57
**TRANSCRIPTION** occurs in the _______ of the \_\_\_\_\_
**TRANSLATION** occurs in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
TRANS**CRIPTION** occurs in the **nucleoplasm of the nucleus**
TRANS**LATION** occurs in the **cytoplasm**
58
**Protein-based** vaccines stimulate an immune response because they?
feature **antigens** that are similar to the
antigens on the **NON**-self-cell
59
Trans**lation** proceeds from the **\_’ to the \_’ end**
Translation proceeds from the **5’ to the 3’ end**
You BUILD an pyramid from the top down!
60
Describe:
**THE FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS THEORY**
Also give an example
*is the theory that **expression** of an emotion **ALSO** activates the **experience** of that emotion*
Ex: Expressing a ‘**happy**’ body language in one’s face should engage the **experience of happiness**
61
In the field of **PSYCHOLOGY**, what does **"VALENCE"** mean?
_Refers to the intrinsic:_
* **PLEASANTNESS** (**_POSITIVE_** valence)
***OR***
* **UNPLEASANTNESS** (**_NEGATIVE_** valence)
* of an event, object, or situation*
62
In the **SOCIAL CONFLICT THEORY**, what does
the ***"second shift"*** attempt to EXPLAIN?
“second shift” is a term to:
explain the **unequal division of labor in the HOUSEHOLD** between women and men
63
Describe "**PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION"** in research methods
Participant observation requires researcher **directly participate in the social phenomena being studied.**
64
What is the storage site for **EXPLICIT** memories?
What about **IMPLICIT** memories?
**explicit** memories are thought to be
stored in the **hippocampus**
The **cerebellum** is thought to be the
storage site for **implicit** memories
65
A *correlation coefficient* **(r2)** value of **.2** indicates *WHAT?*
**twenty percent (20%) of the variability** in _________ can be attributed to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
66
Sociological Theories:
Define **STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL THEORY**
Sees **SOCIAL STRATIFICATION** as
*functional for society and its members*
...by **REWARDING** those who:
* work the **hardest**, or
* contribute the **most** to society
67
Compare **PRIMARY** and **SECONDARY**
## Footnote
**REINFORCERS**
**_Primary reinforcers_**
* Act to reinforce a behavior **WITHOUT** *previous conditioning*
**_Secondary reinforcers_**
* Only take on their reinforcing value as a function of their **association with a primary reinforcer**
68
**Atomic MASS numbers** are used to describe \_\_\_\_\_s, *NOT* \_\_\_\_\_\_s
## Footnote
*Use D2O compared to H2O as an example of this*
*Atomic Mass numbers are used to describe **atoms**, NOT **molecules**!*
## Footnote
Mass number is an atomic characteristic describing the combined mass of the
**protons** and **neutrons** in an atom
*It would be correct to say **deuterium** has a different mass number than **hydrogen**, but **NOT** to say that **deuterium oxide** has a different “mass number” than **water***
69
"\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ definitions" are ways to measure and define a **CONSTRUCT**
A **construct** is a variable that cannot be ____ or \_\_\_\_\_
**Operational** definitions are ways to measure and define a construct
A construct is variable that cannot be **seen** or **touched**
70
**Mental rotation and navigation** tasks are accomplished by
*WHAT* ***REGION*** in *WHAT **TYPE** OF MEMORY?*
Mental rotation and navigation tasks are accomplished by:
**the visual-spatial sketchpad**
in **WORKING** memory
71
A runner rounds a curve while maintaining a **constant speed**.
Is a net force experienced by the runner as she rounds the curve?
A) No, because her speed is **constant**
B) No, because she is in an **accelerated reference frame**
C) Yes, because she is **slowing down**
D) Yes, because she is **changing direction**
**D**
## Footnote
* Considering C, the problem specifically says that the runner maintains **constant** speed
* therefore the “slowing down” indicated in choice C **doesn’t match** the given information and is **incorrect**
* D does make sense because **it DOES take a net force to cause an object to change direction**
* A change in direction means a centripetal acceleration which is directed **inwards**...*
* and in this case would be caused by **friction** from the **track** against the runner’s **shoes**
72
The **proton gradient** created by the **ETC** provides the energy for conversion of
**ADP + Pi⇒ATP**
This is an example of what type of energy conversion?
**\_\_\_\_\_⇒\_\_\_\_\_⇒\_\_\_\_\_**
**Electrical potential ⇒ Kinetic ⇒ Chemical**
* The electrochemical proton gradient that exists across the mitochondrial membrane is an example of **electrical potential energy**
* As the protons move through the ATP synthase complex they transfer some of that energy to **movement (kinetic) energy**
* The ATP synthase complex produces an ATP molecule out of lower energy molecules, ADP and Pi, harnessing the energy of the proton gradient
* The energy ends up stored in the bonds of ATP
* an example of **chemical** **energy**
73
In contrast to **globular** proteins, some **_cytosolic proteins_** (*BETTER KNOWN AS...?)*
have significant **flexibility** due to **unfolded** domains and the **lack of a tightly ordered internal core**
*A protein with which characteristics will exhibit the **greatest flexibility** in dilute solution?*
* A) High net charge and low hydrophobicity
* B) High net charge and high hydrophobicity
* C) Low net charge and low hydrophobicity
* D) Low net charge and high hydrophobicity
**A**
## Footnote
*high net charge density and a low hydrophobicity*
* The cytosolic proteins referenced in the stem are called **Intrinsically Disordered Proteins (IDPs)**
* Intrinsically disordered proteins, which have a high degree of flexibility, are characterized by a **high net charge density and a low hydrophobicity**.
*These characteristics **prevent formation of a hydrophobic core***
***stabilizing** the protein*
74
If there are **x** number of **H2B (core)** histone proteins in a cell,
## Footnote
*how many **H1 (linker)** proteins are expected?*
**.5x**
## Footnote
*H1 as a linker histone and H2B as a core histone*
* Each nucleosome consists of **two core histones** and **one linker histone**
* There are **twice** as many **core** histones as **linker** histones
* or **half** as many **linker** histones as **core** histones
75
**Passive immunity** results from:
**I.** receiving a vaccine
**II.** contracting a viral or bacterial infection
**III.** receiving an injection of antibodies to a specific antigen
**IV.** an infant receiving antibodies from mother’s milk
**III and IV**
* The immunity is given from another source*
* and **not** produced by the **patient’s** immune system*
In both III and IV, **the patient’s immune system is never activated**
* III
* the antibodies are **directly injecte**d into the patient’s body
* IV
* the **mother’s body** has produced the antibodies
76
What's one type of cell that divides continuously **without** inducing apoptosis?
**Embryonic stem cells**
## Footnote
*divide continuously **without** additional stimulation*
Most other cells need **growth factor**s or **mitogens** in order to **stimulate cell division** and eventually the line will cease dividing
77
How is release of **Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)** regulated by **POSITIVE** feedback?
***_IT ISN'T!!!!!!!_***
It's regulated by **SIMPLE FEEDBACK INHIBITION** (by Ca2+ lvls in the blood!)
**POSITIVE** feedback would imply that increased
PTH levels would cause a decrease in release of PTH, but.....
78
**In Blood-Typing, what does the + and - mean?**
* Would a transfusion b/t:*
* an **A+ donor** and an **AB- recipient***
* produce reactive antibodies?*
The **“+” or “-"**denotes the **Rh factor**,
_which is **ANOTHER** antigen found on blood cells_
* The recipient is **negative** for Rh and therefore does **not** possess the antigen*
* and as a consequence will **not** have developed self-tolerance to the Rh factor*
* Because the Rh factor will be viewed as a **foreign** antigen, Patient Y **WILL** produce antibodies against it*
79
**Protein folding** involves a transition from a more **disordered** state
to a more **ordered** state
Why does this entropic penalty **not** prevent spontaneous protein folding ***in vivo*?**
*HINT: Has to do with the protein's surroundings*
Because the **entropy (S)** change to the surroundings is **POSITIVE**
...resulting in a net **negative Gibbs free energy** change
* The reduction in the solvation layer is associated with a significant **positive** entropy
* which **overcomes the entropic penalty** associated*
* with **increased** order in the **folded** state*
* This allows the net Gibbs free energy change to be **negative**
* and therefore the process is **still spontaneous**
80
*PROBLEM SOLVING:*
Describe ***"****INSIGHT"***
_**INSIGHT** refers to:_
those **“aha!” moments**
in which the **solution** to a problem **suddenly becomes clear**
81
What tool do "**BIG DATA" STUDIES** take advantage of?
**Big data** studies take advantage of:
*the millions of data points generated by*
***SEARCH ENGINES*** ***&*** ***SOCIAL MEDIA***
82
Describe the **Single-payer plan** model of health insurance
What country uses this kind of model?
Single-payer insurance plans typically have one entity such as the government or an insurance provider where citizens pay for their monthly premiums to and the entity pays the medical bills
**Canada** uses this type of model
83
If a face stimulus were presented in the **right visual field**, which area of the brain would be responsible for **processing** that information?
**Left geniculate nucleus**
...of the **THALAMUS**
84
What is the
**PRIMARY EXCITATORY NEUROTRANSMITTER**
throughout the Nervous System?
**Glutamate**
85
What is the
**PRIMARY INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTER**
throughout the Nervous System?
**GABA**
86
What is a
**INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTER**
found in the Brain Stem & Retina?
**GLYCINE**
87
Define **FUNCTIONAL (OR "GENETIC") REDUNDANCY**
Genetic redundancy is a term typically used to describe situations where a given biochemical function **is redundantly encoded by two or more genes**
In these cases, mutations (or defects) in one of these genes will have a **smaller effect** **than expected** from the genes' function
88
In the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, what 3 glands determine sexual characteristics?
hypothalamus, hypophysis and gonads
89
How do viruses gain entry to a cell?
Animal viruses gain entrance to cells by **binding to receptor proteins** on the exterior leaflet of the **plasma membrane**
90
A given serum sample has a volume of V and a molarity of M.
If the volume of the sample were doubled while the temperature remained constant, what would be the **new molarity** in terms of M?
**.5M**
## Footnote
This uses the formula M1V1=M2V2, a **simplification of PV = nRT** for two states of the same system
Let’s call the original volume 1 and original molarity 1.
The new volume is 2 and the M2 or new molarity of unknown
Plugging into the formula we get 1X1=2XM
therefore rearranging 1X1/2=M
so **M=0.5**
91
How does **telomerase** lead to cell immortalization?
Telomeres which are too long **will never shorten to a critical length**,
and DNA replication can therefore occur **indefinitely**
92
What would happen in a cell that **lacks telomeres?**
without telomeres, the **end of the lagging strand** of the chromosome **shortens with each replication**
(leads to premature cell death)
93
Heat is transferred throughout the body as a result of warm blood flowing past the cells lining capillary walls
This is an example of:
* Conduction
* Convection
* Radiation
* Condensation
**CONDUCTION!!!!!!!!**
In the case of the cells lining capillaries, the **heat of the blood** causes individual cellular atoms and molecules to **bump into** each other
**This raises their temperature** and the process is repeated as vibrations are passed through the cell to surrounding fluids and tissues
Heat transfer **via direct contact** of this type is an example of **conduction**
94
**“Load force”** is essentially just another term for?
**the NORMAL FORCE**
and normal force is **pressure** times **area**
95
**Chaperone** proteins aid in protein folding by:
providing a pocket to **protect** unfolded regions of the protein from aggregation
Chaperones protect virgin kids from having sex
96
Methanogens are PROKARYOTIC organisms which **use carbon sources** to generate **methane**
In what cellular structure are the enzymes necessary for methanogenesis located?
Cell membrane
97
Which class of biomolecules is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio?
Carbohydrates
98
The adaptive immune cells most directly responsible for the **production and secretion** of antibodies are the?
PLASMA CELLS
99
In healthy individuals, **which location** has the highest blood pressure?
And, is this during **systole** or **diastole?**
Lower leg, during systole
100
From a cellular perspective, the **most efficient** mechanism for gene silencing is at the ______ level
TranSCRIPTIONAL level
Silence it before it's even written
101
p85α and p85β are two regulatory proteins for the PI-3 kinase which share structural similarities, but are encoded for by two different genes. p85α and p85β are:
* alternative splice variants
* protein isoforms
* atomic isotopes
* recombinant proteins
**PROTEIN ISOFORMS**
Since p85α and p85β are encoded by two **different** genes, therefore they **cannot** be **alternative** splice variants, which are produced as the result of alternative splicing of the gene product of one gene
Given that these two proteins have **similar** functions they would fall the category of **isoforms**
102
Bacterial **cellulose** is not susceptible to degradation in the body to the same degree as hydroxyapatite
What is the most likely explanation for the integrity of bacterial cellulose?
Enzymes that hydrolyze
**β-1-4 glycosidic linkages**
are **not present** in human cells
103
Mechanisms in younger children compensate for the lower diffusion capacity shown in Figure 1
Which of the following is a physiological trait that **declines** with age and is likely to **compensate** for decreased diffusion capacity in children?
* Density of HgB
* Density of capillaries/kg tissue
* Resting HR
* RBC count
**RESTING HEART RATE**
The resting heart rate of newborns is 100-160 beats per minute and the average heart rate **declines through adolescence**
The **increase** in heart rate would cause blood to flow in and out of the lungs at a **faster** pace
...thus **increasing** **the opportunity for diffusion** of blood gases
104
Are skeletal muscle sarcomeres and cardiac muscle sarcomeres similar in structure?
YES11
105
Based on Figure 1, in the myocytes of wild-type mice treated with H2O2, administration of the drug **carbachol** will have what impact on **cellular NO levels?**
* NO levels will increase
* NO levels will decrease
* NO levels will remain constant
* NO will no longer be produced by eNOS
**NO levels will INCREASE**
Using Figure 1, it can be determined that in wild type mice carbachol significantly **upregulates** cGMP levels over basal levels
In the passage we learn that cGMP is an **agonist** for the activation of MEK 1/2 so therefore carbachol will **increase** the **activation of MEK1/2**
The passage also states that **following H2O2 treatment t**he **addition of an MEK1/2** agonist results in a significant **increase in NO**
*Therefore the addition of carbachol will cause an increase in NO production.*
106
A man with type A blood and a woman with type B blood have one child who has type B blood, and one child who has type A blood
If the couple has a third child, what is the probability he or she will have **type O blood?**
25%
The man is **type B** and the woman is **type A**
Since they have a child with **type B blood,** this means the child received the **B allele from the man** and must have received the **O allele from the woman**
***Recall that O is recessive***
So, the **woman’s** genotype must be **AO**
The same reasoning from the type A child tells us that the man’s genotype must be BO
When an AO x BO mating occurs, the Punnett square below is used to predict the proportion of each type of progeny
Hence, the probability of obtaining an O child is 25 %
107
Suppose an individual from a previously unidentified animal species is discovered and found to have 23 total chromosomes per autosomal cell
This individual is likely to be sterile because:
* A) **mitosis** would be irregular given that the chromosomes cannot be duplicated.
* B) **mitosis** would be irregular given that each chromosome cannot pair with a homolog.
* C) **meiosis** would be irregular given that the chromosomes cannot be duplicated.
* D) **meiosis** would be irregular given that each chromosome cannot pair with a homolog.
**D**
## Footnote
In **meiosis**, replicated chromosomes align in **homologous pairs** and one replicated chromosome moves to each pole in meiosis I,
reducing the ploidy from **2n to 1n**
This would **not** be possible with an **odd** number of chromosomes
108
What does a sarcomere that would produce the **greatest tension upon contraction** look like?
*Muscles generate the greatest tension when they are at “optimal” length*
The sarcomere shown illustrates the **optimal length:**
**ALL** of the myosin heads can form cross bridges, and
the thin filaments **can slide the MAXIMAL amount**
109
Which graph depicts the relationship between **sarcomere length** and **distance from the center of a skeletal muscle?**
(Length=y axis, distance=x axis)
The model predicts that
_sarcomeres will be:_
* **SHORTER** toward the **TENDONS**
* *...which are located at **both ends of the muscle***
* and **LARGER** **farther away** from the tendons
110
Persons born with limbs of **unequal** length often undergo surgery to repair this deformity
Suppose fascicle length **increased** after reconstructive limb lengthening surgery **by 5 cm**, but the **average** sarcomere length remained at **3.52 µm**
The increase in fascicle length could have been the result of:
* A) muscle fiber lengthening in regions without sarcomeres
* B) the addition of approximately 1,400 **serial** sarcomeres
* C) the addition of approximately 50,000 **serial** sarcomeres
* D) the addition of approximately 14,000 **serial** sarcomeres
The term **serial sarcomere** implies that sarcomeres are added in **series**, in other words:
*the **linear** number rather than the **total** number is considered*
**5 cm of muscle length** (or fascicle length) was added
There are **3.52 µm/sarcomere**
To compare the two, **the addition muscle length must be converted to micrometers:**
(See figure)
111
Which relationship best describes the **energy conversion** in a contracting skeletal muscle?
* A) Chemical to mechanical
* B) Chemical to work
* C) Chemical to mechanical plus heat
* D) Mechanical to thermal
**Chemical ⇒ mechanical + heat**
112
Why is the **amine group** on S142 unable to form a hydrogen bond with the amine group on the 5-fluoruracil?
**Both** functional groups have a **partial positive charge**
113
What impact would a **Q217 to N217** mutation have on the activity of UPP?
* Binding to 5-fluorouracil would **strengthen**, **increasing** UPP activity
* Binding to 5-fluorouracil would **weaken**, **increasing** UPP activity
* Binding to 5-fluorouracil would **strengthen**, **decreasing** UPP activity
* Binding to 5-fluorouracil would **weaken**, **decreasing** UPP activity
Binding to 5-fluorouracil would **WEAKEN,**
**INCREASING** UPP activity
*the binding to 5-fluorouracil will be weaker since the hydrogen bonding distance will be **longer** after the mutation*
114
If **5.0 g of K2SO4** is mixed with **100 mL of water**, what will be the _MOST ABUNDANT_ aqueous solute?
* OH-
* K+
* HSO4
* SO42-
**K+**
## Footnote
The compound contributes **2 K**+ for every **SO42–**
initially [K+] = [SO42–],
**so the concentration of K+ will be higher than sulfate** and any other species that can form as a result of sulfate accepting H+ from water
115
For the hypothetical reaction shown below, with stoichiometric coefficients X, Y and Z, the rate data shown in the table suggest that **the reaction order** with respect to **nitrogen** gas is?
**FIRST ORDER**
The first thing to do for this question is to attempt to balance the equation.
Then one can look at the rate data in the table.
As the table shows, **doubling** the concentration of the nitrogen gas **doubles** the rate of the reaction
This is only consistent with a reaction that is
**first order in nitrogen**
116
In-vivo **lipase activity** is most closely associated with which class of molecules?
## Footnote
A)β-lactams
B)Triglycerides
C) Amino Acids
D)Triphosphates
**TRIGLYCERIDES**
Lipases are enzymes that **catalyze the hydrolysis of fatty esters, or lipids**
The other options can be disregarded as these structures **do not have an ester** functional group. Phosphates can have phosphodiester bonds, but this is slightly different from carbon esters.
117
Describe **DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA**
## Footnote
*How does it differ from OTHER types of amnesia?*
Dissociative amnesia: This disorder is characterized by a **blocking out of critical personal information**, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.
Dissociative amnesia, unlike other types of amnesia, **does not result from other medical trauma** (e.g. a blow to the head)
118
Describe a **DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE**
Dissociative fugue is a rare disorder
An individual with dissociative fugue **suddenly and unexpectedly takes physical leave of his or her surroundings**
*_and sets off on a journey of some kind_*
An individual in a fugue state is **unaware** of or **confused** about his identity,
and in some cases will **assume a new identity** (although this is the exception)
119
A study of female grocery shoppers reported that the majority of respondents felt **pressured for time.**
**Many used heuristics** while reading nutritional information about a product, such as briefly perusing front-of- package information rather than reading the nutritional label.
***Which concept from the sociology of gender may help explain this finding? WHY?***
**SECOND SHIFT**
because second shift implies a **full, eight hour day AFTER** regular employment
*that includes things duties like shopping*
As time is seriously **restricted** for such women, mental **short cuts** are likely to be used.
120
According to Freud, how are the **genital** and **phallic** stages most similar?
Both include the **genitals**
as the **main erogenous zone**
* Genital: masturbation*
* Phallic: Sex w/ opposite gender*
121
Which psychological diagnosis would be associated with a person reporting that they had **no memory** of **who they were** or **where they came from?**
**Dissociative fugue**
is associated with a temporary loss of memory for personal identity
122
**SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS** examine...?
symbolic interactionists examine
**how LABELS affect perception**
and **create prejudice**
123
Define **BIOLOGICAL PREPAREDNESS**
Biological preparedness is the idea that
people and animals are **inherently inclined to form associations** between certain **stimuli** and **responses**.
124
What is the **ARCUATE FASCICULUS?**
*The arcuate fasciculus _connects:_*
**BROCA'S AREA** (*_MOTOR_* aspects of speech) to **WERNICKE'S AREA** (language comprehension)
125
Describe **EMPTY NEST SYNDROME**
* What 2 feelings are characteristic of it?*
* What is this syndrome generally **associated** with?*
*The empty nest syndrome is a feeling of:*
**GRIEF & LONELINESS**
*parents might experience as their children move out of the home*
It is generally associated with:
**INCREASED MARITAL SATISFACTION**
126
Lysine has a **positively** charged side chain.
Congo Red had two **negatively** charged SO3- groups.
What kind of interaction do they make?
The interaction is **+/- attractions**
which are **IONIC**
127
The **frequencies** of the **harmonics** are equal to....?
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ x \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
the **frequencies of the fundamental**, times the **harmonic number (1,2,3...)**
Remember that the **third overtone** is the **fourth harmonic**
Thus the frequency will be 4× the fundamental frequency, which is choice D
128
If something is the **THIRD "OVERTONE,"** that means it is...?
the **FOURTH HARMONIC!**
