Microbes/Fungi Flashcards
(209 cards)
1
Q
How many fungal spores do people inhale per day?
A
1,000 to 10 billion
2
Q
What can increase the amount of spores inhaled
A
Catastrophic flooding or Category 5 hurricane
3
Q
Are fungi friends to foes?
A
Both
4
Q
How can fungi act as friends?
A
- Terrestrial ecosystem
- Recyclers
- Provide food
- Material for packaging and clothes
- Medicine
- Enzyme
- Model organisms
5
Q
How can fungi act as foes?
A
- Crop disease
- Wild-life disease
- Causes allergy and human diseases
6
Q
What are fungi killing in 2020/2021?
A
- Frogs
- Crops
- Humans
- COVID
7
Q
What can plastic-eating fungus help fight?
A
Plastic waste
8
Q
What are some global challenges?
A
-Water crisis
-Energy costs
-Land degradation
-Political conditions
-Climate change
Pest and pathogens
9
Q
What are the main crops that feed the world?
A
- Wheat
- Rice
- Maize
- Soya bean
- Potato
10
Q
What are 5 major threats to global food security?
A
- Wheat stem rust
- Rice blast
- Corn smut
- Soybean rust
- Potato late blight
11
Q
How many people could be feed if not for the annual looses of food due to fungi and oomycetes?
A
600 - 4,000 million people 2000 kCal per day for a year
12
Q
What do new final pathogens threaten?
A
Ecosystem resilience
13
Q
How many ash trees in the died due to fungal pathogen?
A
150 million
14
Q
What does Aspergillum niger produce?
A
Different commercially relevant enzymes
15
Q
What can white rot fungus Trametes vericolor be modified for?
A
Biofuel cells
16
Q
What does studying microbes include?
A
- Bateriology (Archaea and mycoplasmas)
- Virology (Viroids)
- Phycology (restricted to mycology and oomycetes)
- Protozology
17
Q
How are microorganisms measures?
A
In metric units
18
Q
What are eukaryotic and bacteria microorganisms measured in?
A
Micrometers and mass
19
Q
What are virus measured in?
A
Nano meters
20
Q
What are atoms and molecules measured in?
A
Angstroms (A)
21
Q
What are the different methods involved in microbiology?
A
- Microscopy
- Sterilisation
- Pure culture methods
- Molecular biology
22
Q
Who first viewed Giardia lamblia?
A
Leewenhoek
23
Q
What did Robert Hook develop?
A
Compound microscope
24
Q
What is good about confocal microscopy?
A
- Specificity
- Resolution
- Live cell imagery
25
What are autoclaves?
Under high pressure and temperature able to sterilise liquid medium
26
What are microbiological filters?
Passage through filter causes sterilisations
27
What can used to sterilise a sample?
Autoclaves
| Microbiological filters
28
What did Koch's Postulate demonstrate?
The pathogenicity of a microorganism
29
What leads to microbial diversity?
- Time line
| - Origin of life
30
How many microbes are estimated to be in 2017?
100 billion and 1 trillion
31
What leads to diversity of microbes?
Adaptation to enviroment
32
What are the methods of classifying microbial diversity?
- Morphological diversity
- Metabolic diversity
- Ecological diversity
- Genetic diversity
33
What is taken in to account in terms of classification by morphological diversity?
Features, structures aid of microscopy
34
What is taken in to account in terms of classification by metabolic diversity?
Biochemical aid of enzymology
35
What is taken in to account in terms of classification by ecological diversity?
E.g extremophiles
36
What is taken in to account in terms of classification by genetic diversity?
gene sequences aid of molecular biology, DNA sequencing, genome comparison
37
What are different shapes of microbes?
- Coccus
- Rod
- Spirillum
- Spirochete
- Hypha
- Stalk
- Filamentous
38
What is morphological diversity sufficient for?
Distinguishing prokaryotes and eukaryotes
39
What is morphological diversity insufficient for?
Distinguish microbe types that appear the same
40
What are different biological difference to determine metabolic diversity?
- Energy source
| - Carbon source
41
What are the different types of energy sources?
Chemotropic
| Phototrophs
42
What are the different types of carbon sources?
- Heterotrophs
| - Autotrophs
43
What is ecological diversity?
Microbes rate of survival in extreme conditions
44
What are the different types of microbes based on environmental factors?
- Hyperthermophile
- Psychrophile
- Halophile
- Acidophile
- Alkaliphile
- Barophile
45
What is genetic diversity based on?
DNA sequencing comparing the genome from different microbes
| Alterations in genes allows molecular phylogenetic tree
46
How is ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and phylogeny carried out?
- Pure culture/environmental sample cells lysed and DNA isolated
- Gene-encoding ribosomal RNA is isolated and amplified by PCR
- Amplified rRNA gene is sequenced
- Obtained sequences aligned by computer
- Tree depicts difference in rRNA sequence between organisms analysed
47
What is the length of line proportional to on a phylogeny tree?
Evolutionary distance
48
What did Carl Woese do?
rRNA analysis of methanogens and 3 domain of life
| Compared bacteria and eukaryotes
49
What data supports rRNA for 3 domains?
- Transcription - RNA polymerase
- Translation
- Membranes
50
How does transcription support rRNA for 3 domains?
Bacteria = 4 subunits
Eukarya = 10-12 units
Purification showed 8 or more subunits present in Archaea
51
How does translation support rRNA for 3 domains?
Sensitivity to inhibitors suggest Archaeal translation is more like Eukarya than bacteria
52
How does membranes supports rRNA for 3 domains?
Bacteria, eukaryotes - phospholipid bilayer = ester linkage
53
What are the fundamental difference of archaea membranes?
- Linkage of hydrophobic side chain
| - Type of side chain
54
What does horizontal gene transfer effect?
Phylogenic trees of non-essential genes particularly in prokaryotes
55
Are fungi plants or animals?
Neither
56
What are fungi more closely related to animals or plants?
Animals
57
How are fungi citizens of modern society?
- Ethnically diverse, ancient community
- Manufacturing factory worked, recyclers
- Model organism
- Diseases
58
When did fungi diverge from other live?
1500 million years ago
59
When did fungi probably colonise land?
During Cambrian
60
When did terrestrial fossils become common?
400 million years ago
61
How did fungi aid the extinction of dinosaurs?
- Meteor struck
- Dust cloud enveloped Earth, fungal bloom
- Iridium peak and layer of fungal spores
- Dinosaurs body temperature lower, subject to infection
62
How many named species are there of fungi?
140,00
63
How many species estimated are there of fungi?
1.5 to 5.1 million species
64
What is the oldest and largest organisms?
Armillaria mella = Honey fungus
65
How are fungi manufacturing factory workers?
- Enzymes
- Drugs
- Organic acids
- Biofuels
66
Why are fungi crucial players in our ecosystem?
- 96% of all land plants live in association with fungi
- Major decomposers of organic matter
- Grow in very toxic condition and remove metals and radioisotope from solution
67
What do fungi teach us?
Principles of how a cell operate
68
What and why did Paul Nurse receive
Nobel Prize
| Used fungus fission yeast investigate the cell cycle
69
Why do fungi act as serious threats to mankind?
- Rot houses
| - Destroy crops
70
How do fungi act as agents of disease to humans?
Threat to immune-comprimised
| Threat less than bacteria and viruses
71
How do fungi act as agents of disease to plants?
Greater threat than nematodes, bacteria and viruses
72
Can fungi act as bioterrorism?
Yes
73
What do bioweapons attack?
Livestock, crops or ecosystem
74
What are features of a fungal?
- Eukaryotic
- Unicellular growth
- Filamentous growth
- Dimorphic switch
- Heterotrophs
- Secret enzymes
- Fungal wall
- Storage compounds
- Typically haploid
- Produce sexual and sexual spores
- Plastic genomes
- Metabolic flexibility
75
What factor can cause a dimorphic switch in fungals?
Temperature
76
Define heterotroph:
An organism which cannot fix carbon from inorganic sources but uses organic carbon for growth
77
How do fungi obtain nutrients?
Externally digest
78
What makes up the fungal wall?
Chitin
Glucans
Ergosterol
79
What do fungi contain in storage compounds?
Mannitol
Trehalose
Glycogen
80
Why does the genome of fungi plastic?
- Core and dispensable chromosomes
- SNPs
- Effectors
- Retro DNA/transposons
- Emerging new virulent races
81
What does Opisthokonts mean?
Posterior flagellum
82
What are considered to be Opisthokonts?
- All true fungi
- Chytrids
- Microscoridia
- Collar-flagellated protists
- Kingdom Animalia
83
What was the last common ancestor between the fungal and animal kingdom?
Monosiga brevicollis
84
Describe Monosiga brevicollis features:
Unicellular
Aquatic
Motile
85
When did fungi diverge from animal kingdom?
800-900 million years ago
86
What does comparative genomics reveal about the fungal kingdom?
- Fungal genomes lack sequences controlling multicellularity in animals and plants
- Animals, plants and fungi probably diverged at a unicellular grade of organisation
87
What features do Microsporidia, Cryptomycota, Blastocladiomycota and Chytridiomycota all have in common?
Single-celled
Water living
Motile asexual spoores
88
Give a summary of fungal evolution:
- 18rRNA sequences
1. Fungi diverged from water moulds (Oomycetes)
2. Formed aseptate filaments
3. Septa
4. Clamp connections in Basidiomycetes
5. Asexual spores
6. Asci - sexual spores
7. Fruiting bodies
8. Holobasidium
9. Mushroom fungi
89
Fungal Phyla: what is considered higher fungi?
Basidiomycota
Ascomycota
Glomeromycota
90
Fungal Phyla: what is considered lower fungi?
Zygomycota
Chytridiomycota
Microsporidia
Cryptomucota
91
Are fungi and microspordia closely-related or not?
Closely related
92
What are microspordia?
Obligated intracellular pathogens
93
What do microspordia infect?
Animals and insects
94
How many microspordia species infect humans?
Causes diarrhoea, eye, muscular, respiratory and genitourinary infections
95
When was microspordia first described?
1857
96
Describe the structure of microspordia:
- Smallest of eukaryotes
- Unicellular
- Lack mitochondria, peroxisomes and centrioles
- Prokaryotic features (70S ribosomes/ fused 5.8S/28S rRNAs
- Fungal features: nuclear division, fungal wall
97
What is phylum 2 of fungal systematics?
Crytomycota
98
What is the phylum 1 of fungal systematic?
Microspordia
99
How many species are in crytomycota?
30
100
What does crytomycota lack?
Lack chitin cell walls present in fungi
101
What does lack of chin crytomycota cause?
Becomes phagotrophic parasites that feed by engulfing or live inside other cells
102
How do crytomycota feed?
Taking in nutrients from outside cell
103
What is the phylum 3 of the fungal systematics?
Chytridiomycota
104
Where are Chytridiomycota found?
- Aquatic environments living as parasites of algae and planktonic plants
- Soil living as saprotrophs on pollen or parasites on vascular plants
105
How many species are there in Chytridiomycota?
980-1200 species
106
How many flagellum are losses from Chytridiomycota during evolution of fungi?
3-4
107
What is the life cycle of Chytridiomycota?
Thallus becomes sporangium (asexual) and releases zoospores
108
What are Chytrids important in food webs?
- Zoospores are food sources for phytoplankton
- Decompose organic matter
- Convert inorganic compounds to organic compounds
- Parasites to aquatic plants and animals
- Anaerobic chytrids in rumen and hindguts
109
What has Chyrtridiomycota causes a massive extinction of?
Species
110
What are features of Chyrtridiomycota?
Simple microscopic molds within chitin walls and swimming spores
111
What is the phylum 4 of the fungal systematic?
Zygomycota
112
How many species are in Zygomycota?
>1600 species
113
What are features of Zygomycota?
- Multinucleate mycelium = no septa
- Asexual spres in a sporangium
- Two hyphae fuse to form zygote
114
How are Zygomycota elecological diverse?
- Saprotropic (soli and dung)
- On mouldy fruit and bread
- Parasitic on insects
115
What does Zygomycota Mucor spp cause?
Zygomycosis on humans, frogs, cattle and pigs
116
What is Zygomycota Mucormycosis?
- Infect immune-compromised patients
- Second most common fungal infection in haematological malignancy
- 50 to 90% motility
- Risk increases with diabetes, steroids, other immune-suppressive treatments, high serum iron levels
117
What is phylum 5 of the fungal systematics?
Glomeromycota
118
What is coenocytic?
Without division along the length of the filament
119
How many species are Glomeromycota?
200+
120
What are Glomeromycota?
Microscopic obligate intracellular mutualistic symbionts of almost all plant roots
121
What does Glomeromycota form?
Arbuscular mycorrhizal
122
What are features of Glomeromycota arbuscular mycorrhizal?
- Obligate symbionts formation of arbuscules in plant roots
- Large, multi-nucleate
- Non-septate hyphae
123
What is considered to be the most sophisticated basal or lower fungi of the fungal systematics?
Glomeromycota
124
What is phylum 6 of the fungal systematic?
Ascomycota
125
What is the largest group of the fungi kingdom?
Ascomycota
126
What are features of Ascomycota?
- Filamentous fungi and some yeasts
- Most licensed fungi
- Spetata hyphae
- Carry sexual spores in sac like structures called ascus
127
What can Ascomycota be act as?
- Plant pathogens
- Human pathogens
- Drug manufacturers
- Food fungi
- Edible fungi
- Model organisms
128
What is an ubiquitous human pathogen?
Candida albicans
129
What is the phylum 7 of the fungal systematic?
Basidiomycota
130
How many species are Basidiomycota?
50,000
131
Are Basidiomycota a diverse group?
Yes
132
How are Basidiomycota a diverse group?
Difference morphologically, ecologically and taxonomically
133
What are structure of Basidiomycota?
- Septum and dolipores
- Sexual reproduction = basdiospores on basidium
- Asexual reproduction - clamp connection
134
What is asexual reproduction involving clamp connection?
Allow nuclei to migrate from one cell to another
135
What are the four different types of lichens?
- Cructose
- Squamulose
- Foliose
- Fruictose
136
What are crustose lichens?
Crust like and adhere tightly to the surface upon which they grow
137
What are squamulose lichens?
Composed of scale-like parts
138
What are foliose lichens?
Leaf-like, composed of flat sheets of loosely bound tissue
139
What are fruticose lichens?
Composed of free-standing branching tubes
140
What are lichens?
Mutualistic association between fungus and photosynthetic algal or cyanobacterial pater
141
How many lichen species are known?
30,000
142
What does lichen symbiosis nearly always involve?
Ascomycota
143
Why are lichens important?
- Animal food
- Pollution bioindicators
- Source of using acid (antibiotics)
144
What is the structure of lichen?
- Upper cortex of fungal hyphae
- Later containing photobiont cells
- Medulla of fungal hyphae
145
Why are lichens considered resilient?
Dominate life forms in all sorts of unusual environments
146
Historical perspective of fungal biotechnology:
1. 1914:
2. 1929:
3. 1942:
4. 1953:
5. 1955:
6. 1967:
7. 1984:
8. 1987:
9. 2000s:
10. 2017:
1. Strain selection/ Koji process
2. Fleming and antibiotics
3. Tatum and Beadle "one gene, one-enzyme"
4. Roper - parasexual analysis
5. Backis and Stauffer - initiated mutagenesis in penicillin
6. Pirt and Righelato - continuous culture
7. Ball - parasexual breeding
8. Recombinant DNA/transformation
9. Nurse, Cell cycle, genomics
10. CRISPR/CAS
147
What are fungi pioneered for?
Genetic analysis
148
Why are fungi a major toll for classical genetics?
- Easy growth
- Short life cycle
- Most haploid
- Sexual stage
- Produce asexual spores
149
Why do fungi serve as a good models for biochemical studies?
- Simple nutrients required
| - Can directly correlated with genetic studies
150
Define heterothallic species:
Sexes that reside in different individuals
151
What do heterothallic species require to produce sexual spores?
Two compatible homothallic patterns capable of sexual reproduction from a single organisms
152
Define homothallic species:
Possession, within a single organism, of resources to reproduce sexually
153
Biologically fungi are:
- Versatile metabolically
- Form hyphae network/mycelium
- Polarised growth
- Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes or Zygomycte
154
What must a fungus be able to do for industrial uses?
- Spores easily inoculated into large fermenters
- Grow rapidly and form product in large-scale cultures
- Produce the desired product in relatively short period of time
- Grow in a relatively inexpensive nutrient in bulk quantities
- Not be pathogenic
- Amenable to genetic manipulation
155
What can fungi be used for?
- Food
- Biological control agents
- Primary metabolites
- Secondary metabolites
- Heterologous hosts for secretion
- Aflotoxins
156
What is fungal immunosupressant drugs?
Entomopathogenic fungus
157
What are basic tools for a fungal biotechnologist?
- Good understanding of biology and taxonomy of fungi
- Collection and isolation of samples
- Access to fungal culture collections
- Preservation
158
What are two different growth kinetics?
- Surface culture
| - Submerged culture
159
What are different types of fungi in fermenters?
- Solid sate
- Submerged liquid
- Batching culturing
- Fed batch
160
What is solid state fermentation?
- Koji process
- Many years
- Old fashioned
- Cheap
- Effective
161
What is submerged liquid fermentation?
- Chemostat
- Highly controlled
- Substrates must low
162
What is batch culture?
All harvest at a particular time
163
What is continuous culture?
Continuously adding substrate and harvest so never clean chemostat
164
What gives better improvements of fermentation?
- Strain improvement
| - Production improvement
165
Give examples of therapeutic metabolites (fungal products):
Amino acids, penicillin, cephalosporins, Peptides, cyclosporine, Ergot alkaloids, Lovastatin
166
What is an example of alfotoxin?
Sclerotia of Claviceps purpurea
167
What does Clavicepes purpurea?
- Ergotamine
- Ergine
- LSD
168
What symptoms can Clavicepes purpurea causes?
Sensation of burning, vasoconstriction, limb numbness, cold, gangrene, rotting of fingers, toes, hands
169
What are organic acids products of fungals?
- Citric acid
- Itaconic acid
- Fumaris acid
170
What are examples of fungal enzymes?
- A-amylase
- Amyloglucosidase
- Pectinase
- Protease
- Lipase
171
Where do95% of all fungal enzymes come from?
Aspergillus niger
172
What is the most abundant organic compound on Earth?
Cellulose
173
What are examples of cellulose biodegradation?
- Endoglucanases
- Cellobiohydrolases
- B-glucsidase
174
What is a cellulotyic fungi?
Fermntable sugars, ethanol, paper and pulp industry, textile industry, animal feed, biofuels
175
What is the second abundant as a renewable carbon source?
Lignin
176
What does lignin 2 protect?
Cellulose
177
How does white rot fungi depolymerise lignin?
By lignin and Mn-peroxidases
178
What organic acid does Aspergillus niger produce?
Citric acid
179
What percentage of citric acid is used in food industry?
70
180
What percentage of citric acid is used in pharmaceutical industry?
20
181
What percentage of citric acid is used on chemical industry/cosmetics?
10
182
How is citric acid produced?
```
D-glucose
2x Pyruvate
Acetyl-Coa
Oxaloacelate
-Citrate
```
183
What are different types of B-lactam antibiotics nucleus?
- Penicillin nucleus
- Cephalosporin nucleus
- Monobactam nucleus
- Carbapenem nucleus
184
What size are viroids ssRNAs?
150-400bp
185
What do viroids cause?
Plant disease
186
What is the viroid replication mechanism?
Unknown
187
Does viroid have a protein coat envelope?
No, its naked
188
What is the average size of a virus?
20-200 nm
189
Can viruses be naked or enveloped?
Both
190
How much space does the capsid cover the virus?
60-95%
191
How much space does the nucleic acid core cover the virus?
5-40%
192
What do you call a coat and core in a virus?
Nucleocapsid
193
Does virus contain RNA or DNA?
Both
194
Does virus contain single stranded or double stranded RNA/DNA?
Both
195
What are the symptoms of foot and mouth virus?
Mouth sores, debilitation and lamelessness in sheep and clooven hoofed animals
196
How do you control foot and mouth virus?
Had to kill
197
What are the symptoms of blue tongue virus?
Lameness/swallowing tongue/death of sheep
198
What is the vector of blue tongue virus?
Midges
199
What is the size of a mycoplasmas?
0.1 micrometer
200
Does mycoplasmas have a small or large genome?
Small
201
How many genes are in genome of mycoplasmas?
650
202
What does mycoplasmas lack?
- Enveloped nucleus
| - Trye wall
203
What diseases do mycoplasmas cause?
Plant and animals disease
204
What is included in the protists?
Algae, protozoa, slime moulds, water moulds/oomycetes
205
What are example of slime moulds?
Myxomycota
206
What are features of slime moulds?
- Wall-less
- Cellular
- Acellular
- Brightly coloured
207
What are different types of water moulds related to oomycota?
- Damping off disease
- Downy mildews
- White rusts
- Late Blight
208
How helped to the development of discovery of penicillin?
- Alexander Fleming
- Howard Florey
- Ernst Chain
- Norman Heatley
- Charles Fletcher
- Albert Alexander
- Dorothy Hodgkin
209
How much of B-lactams is the antibiotic market?
+65%
