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BIOL 373 > unit 7 > Flashcards

unit 7 Flashcards

1
Q

Define metabolism

A

Set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within the cells of living organisms

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2
Q

Transformations of energy substrates are biased towards ____ / _____ or _____ / _____

A

Storage/anabolism
Breakdown/catabolism

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3
Q

Regulation of metabolism can be _____ or _____

A

Endocrine
neural

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4
Q

Ingested biomolecules three possible fates

A

Fuel
Build
Store

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5
Q

The three types of nutrients that are immediately able to be used (because they are circulating in the plasma)

A

Glucose
Free fatty acids
Amino acids

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6
Q

The fed/absorptive state of metabolism focuses on _____, products of digestion being ____ and used for ______

A

Anabolic
Absorbed
Synthesis or are stored

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7
Q

The fasted/postabsorptive state of metabolism focuses on ______, the energy will come from ______

A

Catabolism
Body stores

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8
Q

In fed state metabolism under influence of ____, enzyme activity for forward reaction increases. Enzyme for ______ breakdown are inhibited.

A

Insulin
Glycogen

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9
Q

In fasted state metabolism under influence of ____, enzymes that break down _____ are more active. Enzymes for _____ synthesis are inhibited.

A

Glucagon
Glycogen
Glycogen

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10
Q

Fasted state go through ______ to create glucose-6-phosphate

A

Gluconeogenesis

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11
Q

Carbs are stored as glycogen in the ___ which can be broken down and exported as free glucose

A

Liver

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12
Q

Carbs are stored as glycogen in the ___ which can NOT be broken down and exported as free glucose

A

Muscle

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13
Q

Glycogen in the muscles are used ______ or exported as _______ to the liver to enter the ________ pathway

A

Within the muscles
Pyruvate/lactate
Gluconeogenesis

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14
Q

Triglycerides in ________ is exported as glycerol into the ____ to enter the _______ pathway

A

Adipose
Liver
Gluconeogenesis

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15
Q

Fats within the ________ is exported as _______ and undergo ___________

A

Adipose
Fatty acids
Beta oxidation

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16
Q

If ______ proceeds faster then acetyl CoA can be used in ____, ketone bodies are formed

A

Lipolysis
TCA cycle

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17
Q

Ketone bodies enter the blood and serve as energy for _______

A

The brain

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18
Q

Why are ketone bodies potentially dangerous?

A

They can disrupt the acid base balance in the body, acid base balance

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19
Q

The glucostatic theory of eating

A

Intake is regulated by glucose levels monitored by centers in the hypothalamus

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20
Q

The lipostatic theory

A

Signals from fat stores to brain modulate eating behaviours

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21
Q

Leptin was discovered in 1994. It is a _____ ______ synthesized in _________ tissue

A

Protein hormone
adipose

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22
Q

A mutation was identified in mice that caused over eating called the _____ gene

A

Ob

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23
Q

The mutation of leptin receptors discovered in mice was called the _____ gene

A

Db

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24
Q

Cells of empty stomach secrete _____ which causes an _____ in appetite

A

Ghrelin
Increase

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25
Q

When the stomach is stretched there is a _________ in acid which innervates acid sensing ion channels

A

Increase

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26
Q

In response to fat or protein in the lumen of the small intestine there is an increase in _____

A

CCK

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27
Q

To decrease appetite the lower small intestine has increased concentrations of ______ and _____ which inhibits the release of _________. Both of these are triggered by _________ in the lumen and a _______ from the upper small intestine

A

GLP-1
Peptide yy
Neuropeptide y
Macronurtients
Neural reflex

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28
Q

Neuropeptide y is a __________ in the ________ of appetite

A

Neurotransmitter
stimulation

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29
Q

Alpha cells secrete ______, d cells secrete _______, beta cells secrete _______

A

Glucagon
Somatostatin
insulin

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30
Q

______ transporters move glucose into ______ cells by facilitated diffusion

A

GLUT2
Beta

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31
Q

ATP causes potassium leak channels on beta cells to _____

A

Close

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32
Q

When blood glucose is high glucose will enter the cell and go through _______ and the _________ to create ATP

A

Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle

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33
Q

When the beta cells have high concentrations of ATP the __________ will close and cause the ________ to become depolarized and ____ will enter the cell to push ____ to exocytosis

A

Potassium leak channels
Calcium channels
Calcium
insulin

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34
Q

In the fed state, high insulin causes….

A

Glucose oxidation
Glycogen synthesis
Fat synthesis
Protein synthesis
(GO GyS FP)

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35
Q

In the fasted state, high levels of glucagon cause…

A

Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
Ketogenesis

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36
Q

Insulin is released when these 5 things increase

A

Plasma glucose
Plasma amino acids
GLP-1
GIP
Parasympathetic activity

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37
Q

The three targets of insulin

A

Striated muscle
Adipose
Liver

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38
Q

There are 5 actions of insulin that increase

A

Glucose transport into Glut-4-expressing target cells
Glucose metabolism
Glycogenesis
Fat synthesis
Protein synthesis

39
Q

The 5 steps in the mechanism of insulin

A

Insulin binds to tyrosine kinase receptor
Receptor phosphorylates insulin-receptor substrates (IRS)
Second messenger pathway alter existing proteins
Membrane transport is modified
Cells metabolism changes

40
Q

Insulin effects in muscle and adipose when there is no insulin: GLUT4 transporters __________ and glucose _________ into cell

A

Are not on membranes
Cannot

41
Q

Insulin effects in muscle and adipose when there is insulin: GLUT4 transporters __________ and glucose _________ into cell

A

Are inserted into the membrane by exocytosis
Moves into the cell

42
Q

Insulin effects in hepatocytes when insulin is low: hepatocytes _______

A

Make glucose and export it via GLUT2 transporters

43
Q

Insulin effects in hepatocytes when insulin is high: hepatocytes _______

A

Favor glucose import via glut2 and activate hexokinase to convert glucose to glucose-6-PO4

44
Q

Insulin is ____bolic

A

Ana

45
Q

Glucagon ______ the effects insulin

A

Antagonizes

46
Q

The main function of glucagon is to prevent _______, the main target is the ______, the main trigger is ______

A

Hypoglycemia
Liver
Low blood glucose

47
Q

In response to low glucose _______ will be inhibited and ______ will be innervated
Pancreatic beta cells
Pancreatic alpha cells

A

Pancreatic beta cells
Pancreatic alpha cells

48
Q

Pancreatic beta cells release ____

A

Insulin

49
Q

Pancreatic alpha cells release ____

A

Glucagon

50
Q

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by ____________ resulting from __________ and/or __________

A

Elevated blood glucose
Not enough insulin secretion
Abnormal cell responsiveness

51
Q

Type 1 diabetes is caused by __________, type 2 is caused by _________

A

Inadequate insulin secretion
Abnormal target cell responsiveness

52
Q

Metabolic syndrome has at least three of…

A

(GOTCH)
High blood Glucose
Central Obesity
Elevated triglycerides
Low HDL-cholesterol
Hypertension

53
Q

Type 2 diabetes often occurs with _____ and _______

A

Atherosclerosis
hypertension

54
Q

larger animals (such as humans) have _______ so can go without food for relatively long periods but food restriction and fat depletion eventually lead to _______

A

significant energy stores
‘hungry brain’

55
Q

major force ‘designing’ the metabolism system was _______ which resulted in strong defense for the __________

A

constant struggle throughout evolution to find enough food for survival
lower limits of adiposity

56
Q

Adrenal glad secretes 4 hormones

A

Aldosterone
Glucocorticoids
Sex hormones
Catecholamines

57
Q

Glucocorticoids can prevent ________ and supress ______

A

Hypoglycemia
Immune response

58
Q

Norepinephrie comes from ______ _________ neurons

A

Sympathetic
Post-ganglionic

59
Q

Cushing’s syndrome is caused by ________. Primary is caused by _______, secondary is caused by _______, iatrogenic is caused by _________

A

Hypercortisolism
Cortisol-secreting adrenal tumor
ACTH secreting pituitary tumor
Cortisol from therapy for other conditions

60
Q

The ________ cells secrete thyroid hormone

A

follicular

61
Q

The mechanism of action of thyroid is __________

A

Similar to steroids, binds to nuclear receptor

62
Q

Thyroid is ____________ and travels by _____________

A

Lipophilic
Circulation bound to thyroid binding globulin

63
Q

The active form of thyroid is _____, the main circulating form is _____

A

T3
T4

64
Q

Thyroid hormone is converted to active form _________ by _________

A

Within target cells
Deiodinases

65
Q

Thyroid hormone is more important for (young/old) people

A

Young

66
Q

The main function of the thyroid hormone is to:

A

Provide substrates for oxidative metabolism

67
Q

What are the two ways that thyroid hormone provides substrates for oxidative metabolism

A

Increase oxygen consumption and heat generation (basal metabolic rate) which then causes increased Na/K atpase activity

Interact with other hormones to modulate carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism

68
Q

Growth hormone effects can be direct via _______ or indirect via _______

A

Target cells that express GH receptors
insulin-like factors (IGF/somatomedins) produced by liver or target cells

69
Q

The metabolic actions of growth hormone:

A

Carbohydrate – indirect increase of plasma glucose
Fat – increased lipolysis, increased oxidation (catabolic)
Protein – increased amino acid uptake, increased protein synthesis, decreased oxidation for energy (anabolic)

70
Q

The growth actions of growth hormone

A

Increased proliferation and differentiation of chondrocytes – cartilage and bone growth
Increased muscle growth
Increased growth of soft tissues

71
Q

Deficiency of growth hormone caused by _________ or _________

A

Hypersecretion
GH-receptor mutations

72
Q

Excess growth hormone before closure of growth plates _________, after _______

A

Giantism
acromegaly

73
Q

How does calcium affect insulin secretion

A

It initiates exocytosis of insulin

74
Q

What are the physiological functions of calcium

A
  • It is an important signal molecule
  • It is part of the intercellular cement that holds cells together at tight junctions
  • It is a cofactor in the coagulation cascade
  • Plasma calcium concentrations affect the excitability of neurons
75
Q

How does plasma calcium concentrations affect the excitability of neurons?

A
  • Too low means permeability of Na+ increases which makes the nervous system hyperexcitable
  • Too high means Na+ won’t be permeable enough depressing neuromuscular activity
76
Q

What is extracellular calcium involved in?

A
  • Secretion/exocytosis
  • Contraction of cardiac and smooth muscle
  • Clotting cascade
77
Q

What is intracellular calcium involved in?

A
  • Muscle contraction, signalling pathways
  • Component of extracellular matrix of bones and teeth
  • Bone is largest reservoir of calcium but very little of it available for exchange
78
Q

All of the calcium in the body which is distributed into 3 compartments:

A
  • Extracellular fluid
  • Intracellular Ca2+
  • Extracellular matrix (Bone)
79
Q

long bones grow by _________ _________ of chondrocytes at _______ ______ secrete ______ and other extracellular matrix components
-> Older chondrocytes degenerate, leaving spaces
-> _______ invade spaces, lay down ______ on cartilage base
-> revert to less active form (______)

A

proliferating columns
epiphyseal plate
collagen
Osteoblasts
Ca-PO4 matrix
Osteocytes

80
Q

Calcium ingested in the diet and absorbed in __________ . Only about ____ of ingested Ca2+ is absorbed

A

the small intestine
1/3

81
Q

Function of calcitonin?

A

Lowers blood calcium levels

82
Q

What is the function for calcitrol?

A

Enhance calcium uptake in the small intestine

83
Q

What is calcitrol?

A

Active form of vitamin D

84
Q

What is the stimulus for parathyroid hormone?

A

Decrease in plasma calcium

85
Q

What are the 3 hormones that regulate the movement of calcium between bone, kidney, and intestine?

A
  • Parathyroid hormone
  • Calcitriol (Vitamin D3)
  • Calcitonin (Not as important in adult humans)
86
Q

Calcium absorption occurs in ___________
Output of calcium takes place in ________

A

transcellular transport
kidneys with a small amount excreted in feces

87
Q

steps of transcellular calcium transport

A
  • It enters the enterocyte through apical calcium channels
  • Once inside, it binds to the protein ‘Calbindin’ which helps keep free intracellular calcium concentration low
  • On the basolateral side, Ca2+ exits through basolateral Ca2+-ATPase or Na+-Ca2+ exchangers
88
Q

graves’ disease is caused by auto-antibodies that act as TSH agonist, which are not affected by the usual feedback loops. What will happen to thyroid gland size in a patient with Graves’ disease?
decrease
increase
no change

A

it will increase

89
Q

which effect is unique to cortisol?
Question 15 options:

a) increased gluconeogenesis
b) suppression of immune function
c) increased proteolysis
d) increased lipolysis
e) increased blood glucose

A

b) suppression of immune function

90
Q

A person with a mutation resulting in a 21-hydroxylase deficiency would be expected to have ____ ACTH level and ____ adrenals

a) normal, small
b) high, normal
c) high, enlarged
d) high, small
e) normal, enlarged

A

c) high; enlarged

91
Q

Which group of hormones are most similar in their effects on metabolism?

a) glucagon, insulin, thyroid hormone
b) glucagon, cortisol, epinephine
c) glucagon, cortisol, growth hormone
d) cortisol, growth hormone, thyroid hormone
e) growth hormone, insulin, thyroid hormone

A

b) glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine

92
Q

diabetics who require insulin usually inject it rather than taking it as a pill because …

a) injecting it helps it to cross the blood-brain barrier.
b) the hormone is a protein and will therefore be broken down in the digestive system.
c) they prefer injecting themselves over the hassle of taking pills.
d) injecting it protects it from being excreted by the kidney.
e) a rapid rise in plasma insulin is required, to drop blood glucose quickly.

A

the hormone is a protein and therefore be broken down in the digestive system

93
Q

during the fasted/postabsorptive state, muslce can contribute to maintenance of blood glucose levels by …

a) breaking down proteins and exporting amino acids to be used by the liver as gluconeogenic substrates.
b) breaking down glycogen and exporting free glucose.
c) exporting pyruvate or lactate to be used by the liver as a gluconeogenic substrate.
d) a and c
e) a, b and c

A

d) a and c
- breaking down proteins and exporting amino acids to be used by the liver as gluconeogenic substrates

  • exporting pyruvate or lactate o be used by he liver as gluconeogenic substrate
94
Q

ketogenesis typically occurs in situation in which …
Question 1 options:

a) dietary carbohydrate intake is too high and excess sugars are converted to ketones.
b) more acetyl CoA is formed than can be used in the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
c) dietary fat intake is too high, and fatty acids are converted to keto-acids.
d) rates of lipolysis are high.
e) b and d

A

e) b and d
- more acetyl CoA is formed than can be used in the Krebs cycle

  • rates of lipolysis are high

BIOL 373 (12 decks)

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