Week 2.2 - Civil Society as a Contested Space in Development

Question 1

What is civil society?

Answer 1

Civil society is an associational space between the state, the market, and the family
It requires the state to grant or deny rights, and “rule of law” requires the state
Without the state, you can have “social/society groups” but not “civil” society. Civil society can also monitor the state

Question 2

What is the relationship between civil society and power asymmetries?

Answer 2

Civil society is ridden with the power asymmetries present in society and the economy as a whole
It is neither inherently “good” nor “bad,” as it reflects the inequalities of the broader society and economy

Question 3

What is the rights-claiming space in civil society?

Answer 3

The rights-claiming space is where people come together as “citizens” to organize around group interests and goals, acting collectively in the public sphere (Diamond, 1995)

Question 4

What did Lavalle et al. (2005) say about civil society organisations?

Answer 4

Lavalle et al. (2005) argue that people are not organised for “individual” rights but for “collective organisations”
Civil society organisations cannot be alternatives to the state to promote “participation,” but their connection to political society promotes participation

Question 5

According to Diamond (1994), can civil society exist in a “lawless state”?

Answer 5

Yes, civil society may exist in a lawless state if participants have shared rules such as non-violence and pluralism

Question 6

What are some examples of civil society organisations?

Answer 6

Examples include business associations, trade unions, farmer organisations, women’s organisations, professional organisations (e.g., journalists, doctors), community organizations, charities, development NGOs (membership and advocacy), and religious organisations

Question 7

What is the democratic function of civil society in a democracy?

Answer 7

Civil society plays a democratic function by being pluralist and market-oriented, contributing to democratic practices

Question 8

How do private sector companies interact with civil society?

Answer 8

Private sector companies attempt to capture or form civil society organisations

Question 9

What is the role of state repression in relation to civil society organisations?

Answer 9

Civil society organisations, especially local development NGOs, can be targets of state repression
For example, in the Philippines, local NGOs are often labeled as “terrorists,” and in Israel, the IDF has accused all organized relief NGOs of being terrorists

Question 10

What is Gramsci’s notion of hegemony in relation to civil society?

Answer 10

Gramsci’s notion of hegemony suggests that civil society is the site of battles over political legitimacy, where the state constructs its hegemony in alliance with dominant classes
If civil society is repressed, people may rebel

Question 11

How does Diamond (1994) recast Gramsci’s concept of civil society?

Answer 11

Diamond recasts civil society as the “ideological marketplace,” including media, universities, think tanks, publishers, theatres, film companies, and artistic networks

Question 12

How do civil society organisations serve political functions?

Answer 12

Civil society organisations serve as terrains of confrontation between political currents, organising and lobbying for legal changes (e.g., at the state level) and can give birth to political organisations (e.g., trade unions forming the Labour Party, environmental movements forming Green Parties)

Question 13

Can civil society organizations replace political parties and state agencies?

Answer 13

According to Lavalle et al. (2005), civil society organizations cannot replace political parties and state agencies in addressing problems of the poor; they must work with them and serve as “representatives” of the poor

Question 14

How do political organizations interact with civil society?

Answer 14

Political organisations attempt to capture civil society organisations, create new ones, or co-opt existing ones
For example, German political parties establish foundations, and communist parties form “front groups”

Question 15

How did the Suharto dictatorship in Indonesia use civil society organisations?

Answer 15

Under the Suharto dictatorship, most societal organisations distinct from the ruling GOLKAR party were banned
However, environmental organisations were allowed, as they were seen as unthreatening to the regime and participated in the democratic transition

Question 16

How have workers’ rights in capitalist systems evolved?

Answer 16

Workers’ rights have evolved from “yellow unions” to more effective labor unions
In capitalist democracies, there have been both advances and setbacks in workers’ rights to organise and engage in collective bargaining

Question 17

How do trade unions function in China?

Answer 17

In China, the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) is under the authority of the CCP
The Shenzhen Federation of Trade Unions (SFTU) is affiliated with the ACFTU and organizes workers while steering them away from strikes, acquiring “associational power” more than typical “yellow unions” in capitalist systems

Question 18

What is the role of farmers’ organisations in civil society?

Answer 18

Farmers’ organisations are involved in politics, advocating for food security, organic farming, and confronting agribusiness companies
They play a role in the green transition and can be distinguished from cooperatives, which are market-oriented organisations

Question 19

What is the nature of NGOs in civil society?

Answer 19

NGOs are officially established legal entities, run by employed staff, well-funded domestically or internationally, large and well-staffed, and often viewed as liberal democratic and pro-democratic

Question 20

What is the difference between membership NGOs and advocacy NGOs?

Answer 20

Membership NGOs are more accountable to their members, even if they receive external funding, while advocacy NGOs are cause-oriented and tend to be more ephemeral

Question 21

What is the role of professionalised NGOs in civil society?

Answer 21

Professionalised NGOs are urban-based, staffed by educated people, and have a self-reproducing incentive structure
They tend to propagate a culture of managerialism and are captured by modernisation and neoliberal worldviews

Question 22

How do NGOs influence politics?

Answer 22

NGOs may assume “inclusiveness,” but their growth often aligns with the geo-strategic objectives of donor countries
They are seen as service delivery agents, not an expansion of civil society, particularly in a neoliberal anti-state context

Question 23

How do NGOs strengthen or bypass the state?

Answer 23

NGOs mobilise to bypass the state due to bureaucratic inefficiency and political indifference (Chandhoke)
Some argue that NGOs extend the state’s authority (e.g., social funds), while others claim NGOs are doing what the state should do (e.g., in Vietnam)

Question 24

How do international civil society organisations function?

Answer 24

International civil society organisations operate when civil society is guaranteed by states within the realm of law, with cooperation between civil society organisations anchored in states
International law remains embryonic, and a global state is yet to be seen

Question 25

What is the role of international NGOs (INGOs)?

Answer 25

INGOs serve as conduits for official development assistance but may weaken local communities by hiring the best local talent, diverting funding, antagonising states, and compromising the interests of local civil society organisations

Question 26

What is the accountability issue with INGOs?

Answer 26

INGOs often lack accountability to the populations and communities they work with in developing countries They prioritise donor country interests and face pressures to collaborate with the private sector, sometimes compromising their effectiveness

Question 27

How do INGOs prioritize reproduction and risk management?

Answer 27

INGOs prioritise the reproduction of their organisations and engage in risk management, which often involves reducing accountability and focusing on their own survival rather than addressing community needs

Question 28

What is the relationship between NGOs and state capacity building?

Answer 28

NGOs contribute to service delivery to reach the rural and urban poor, but there are concerns about their relationship with state bureaucracy, including the attitude of state organisations towards foreign-funded NGOs and finance delivered outside state systems

Question 29

How has the meaning of civil society shifted over time?

Answer 29

Civil society was initially a revolutionary and dynamic concept but has become a consensual, "flattened" term, losing its original ambiguities and tensions This reductionist approach has sidelined broader political and social dimensions, undermining its potential for deep democratic engagement

Question 30

What is the role of donor influence in the evolution of civil society?

Answer 30

Multilateral organizations and donor agencies promoted civil society as a solution for democracy and development, reducing it to NGOs and voluntary agencies, thus conceptualising civil society as only consisting of voluntary agencies, or what is termed the ‘third sector’

Question 31

What are the challenges and criticisms of civil society in developing countries?

Answer 31

Inequality and exclusion: Civil society often mirrors existing power imbalances, with marginalized groups struggling for representation Co-optation by donors: NGOs risk being tools for bypassing state sovereignty in the Global South Romanticized expectations: Civil society is neither inherently democratic nor transformative; its effectiveness depends on its inhabitants and their struggles Disenchantment in Eastern Europe: After the dismantling of state institutions and market openings, there was austerity, unemployment, ethnic discrimination, and violence, leading to disillusionment with civil society

Question 32

What led to the flattening out of civil society, according to Neera Chandhoke?

Answer 32

Association with democracy: Civil society's connection to the fall of authoritarian regimes led donors to view it as a “sure recipe” for democracy Discontent with traditional representation: Bureaucratic, unresponsive political parties and trade unions led activists to view civil society as an alternative to formal politics State pluralization: After the post-Washington Consensus, the state was expected to share functions with civil society organizations, leading to the rise of NGOs Reduction to the ‘Third Sector’: Civil society is now mainly seen as voluntary agencies

Question 33

What did Lavalle et al. (2005) argue about the participation of civil organizations versus individuals?

Answer 33

Lavalle et al. (2005) argued that the dominant focus on individual citizen participation is misplaced In participatory institutions, civil organizations representing different sectors of the poor are the primary participants Most active representatives of the poor in São Paulo were well-connected to conventional political actors, necessitating a polity-centered approach

Question 34

How do political connections affect the effectiveness of civil organisations?

Answer 34

Civil organisations with ties to political parties and state agencies are more effective in representing the poor They are not co-opted and are more likely to organise public demonstrations and demand action from the government through multiple channels These organisations participate at higher rates due to their ability to influence participatory institutions and access policy-related resources

Question 35

What are the broad empirical lessons from Lavalle et al.'s (2005) study on civil society in São Paulo?

Answer 35

Civil organisations representing the poor participate substantially in participatory policy processes alongside individual citisens Ties to political parties and state agencies enhance civil organisations’ ability to represent the poor The capacities of civil organisations to participate vary, and only a minority are membership-based Institutional design influences participation, neutralising wealthier organisations' advantages

Question 36

What did Michael Bratton (1989) suggest about NGOs and civil society?

Answer 36

Bratton suggested that NGOs significantly bolster civil society through their participatory and democratic approach

Question 37

How does the dominant liberal view of NGOs and civil society relate to democracy?

Answer 37

The liberal view posits that a vibrant and autonomous civil society, along with an effective state, is necessary for balancing demands from different interest groups, thus supporting democracy NGOs are seen as integral to strengthening civil society and democracy

Question 38

What is the role of civil society in democratic transitions and consolidation?

Answer 38

Civil society mobilises pressure for political change during democratic transitions and checks state abuses, prevents authoritarian resurgence, encourages citizen participation, and enhances state legitimacy during democratic consolidation

Question 39

How has the growth of NGOs been misinterpreted in relation to civil society?

Answer 39

The growth of NGOs has often been equated with the strengthening of civil society, overlooking the diversity, internal contradictions, and differing capacities of NGOs This conflation overlooks how NGOs can replicate societal inequalities and remain dependent on external donors

Question 40

What is the impact of NGOs on developing societies?

Answer 40

NGOs empower marginalised groups, expand citizen participation, and advocate for policy reforms, as seen in countries like Chile, Brazil, Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand However, they can also weaken state legitimacy, especially when they fill gaps in service provision or function as a "parallel state"

Question 41

What are the negative effects of NGO professionalisation and donor dependence?

Answer 41

Professionalisation and donor dependence distance NGOs from grassroots constituencies, leading them to replicate societal divisions rather than challenge them In some countries, NGO leadership operates with personalised rule, and NGO activities tend to favour urban elites over rural populations

Question 42

What is the role of donor funding in NGO activities?

Answer 42

Donor funding drives the proliferation of NGOs but emphasises service delivery over political activism NGOs become more accountable to donors than to grassroots communities, with urban-based elites dominating the NGO sector

Question 43

How do NGOs interact with the state in Latin America and other regions?

Answer 43

NGOs in Latin America often function as partners in state-sponsored programs, legitimising neoliberal policies In countries like Brazil, NGOs have played consultative roles, legitimising government policy rather than challenging it

Question 44

What is the dual impact of NGOs on the state?

Answer 44

NGOs strengthen state legitimacy by delivering services but weaken state capacity by diverting resources and accountability away from governments

Question 45

How do NGOs fit into Tocquevillian and Gramscian perspectives on civil society?

Answer 45

Tocquevillian perspective: Civil society is inherently "good," and NGOs are microcosms of the democratic process Gramscian perspective: Civil society is a contested space reflecting broader societal struggles, where power dynamics shape the role and impact of NGOs

Question 46

How has the neoliberal era affected NGOs?

Answer 46

NGOs in the neoliberal era have become increasingly embedded in the political and economic agenda, often serving as tools for donor-driven development In Latin America, NGOs have been used to implement the neoliberal model, reducing their autonomy and transformation potential

Question 47

How does civil society contribute to democratization?

Answer 47

Civil society mobilizes against authoritarian rule by organizing protests, advocacy, and grassroots movements

Question 48

What are some historical examples of civil society movements leading to democratic transitions?

Answer 48

South Korea, Chile, Poland, South Africa, Nigeria "People Power" revolution in the Philippines (1986) led to the fall of Ferdinand Marcos

Question 49

What is a critique of civil society’s role in democratization?

Answer 49

Overemphasizing civil society ignores the role of political elites and negotiated transitions in democratization

Question 50

How does civil society hold governments accountable?

Answer 50

Through human rights groups, voter education initiatives, and anti-corruption watchdogs Independent media and think tanks expose abuses and influence policy

Question 51

What is a critique of civil society as a government watchdog?

Answer 51

Civil society can be co-opted by the state, especially in weak democracies, limiting its independence

Question 52

How does civil society mitigate social divisions?

Answer 52

Cross-cutting organizations reduce ethnic, religious, and ideological tensions. Labour unions and issue-based movements have reduced polarization in post-authoritarian societies

Question 53

What is a critique of civil society's role in reducing polarization?

Answer 53

Some civil society groups can deepen polarization (e.g., fundamentalist or nationalist movements)

Question 54

What is a critique of civil society as a leadership pipeline?

Answer 54

Civil society actors may lack experience or legitimacy to govern effectively

Question 55

What is structural power in labor movements?

Answer 55

Workers’ leverage based on their location in the economic system, such as labor shortages or working in essential industries

Question 56

What is associational power in labor movements?

Answer 56

Power derived from forming collective organizations like trade unions

Question 57

What is collective bargaining?

Answer 57

A formal negotiation process between workers and management to secure better wages, working conditions, and benefits

Question 58

What is the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU)?

Answer 58

The only legal trade union in China, controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Question 59

Why are independent trade unions ineffective in China?

Answer 59

They are prohibited, and workplace unions are dependent on management, making them ineffective

Question 60

What role did the Yantian International Container Terminal (YICT) play in labor struggles?

Answer 60

It is one of the world’s busiest ports, where workers staged successful strikes in 2007 and 2013

Question 61

How did YICT workers use structural power?

Answer 61

Critical role in supply chains allowed them to disrupt global trade Stable employment & labor shortages increased their bargaining power

Question 62

What were the outcomes of YICT strikes?

Answer 62

2007: Wage increases, paid lunch breaks, and a union were established 2013: Workers won a 30% wage increase and housing benefits