Week 3.2 - Social Development, Social Policy and Social Protection

Question 1

What is social policy?

Answer 1

Social policy consists of major transformative instruments, many of which are unavoidable for meaningful development and economic “catch-up”

Question 2

What are residual approaches to social policy?

Answer 2

Residual approaches provide state assistance only when needs are unmet by other institutions (family, religion, market)
They are viewed as temporary safety nets, avoiding dependence

Question 3

What are universal approaches to social policy?

Answer 3

Universal approaches make social security a normal function of the state, covering all citizens with adequate benefits as a claimable entitlement based on rights or contributions

Question 4

What does Mkandawire argue about policy regimes?

Answer 4

Policy regimes are never purely universal or targeted but exist on a continuum
Where they fall on this continuum shapes life chances and social order

Question 5

Why can’t social policy models from advanced economies be directly applied to poorer agrarian economies?

Answer 5

Poorer economies lack the state capacity to enforce laws, tax populations effectively, and implement independent policies

Question 6

What does Polanyi’s ‘Great Transformation’ describe?

Answer 6

It describes the expansion of markets and commodification of goods and services, leading to a double movement where societies resist through de-commodification and welfare regimes

Question 7

How did newly independent states adopt social policies?

Answer 7

Many post-colonial states adopted welfare policies from their colonizers while promoting import-substituting industrialization

Question 8

What are the key features of neo-liberal social policy?

Answer 8

Retrenchment of the state, public expenditure cuts, privatization, trade liberalization, low-tax regimes, and prioritization of inflation control and debt repayment

Question 9

How did the East Asian financial crisis challenge familialism?

Answer 9

It exposed the limits of relying on family-based welfare systems, leading to demands for state-led social protection

Question 10

How does the World Bank define social risk management?

Answer 10

Welfare is measured by income and consumption flows
Risks are adverse shocks threatening welfare, and private insurance is the preferred solution
The state intervenes only to improve market function and provide safety nets

Question 11

Why does the World Bank prefer private over state-based risk management?

Answer 11

It believes state interventions should not “crowd out” private solutions, as markets should handle all risk arrangements except for incapacitated individuals

Question 12

What is a key critique of neo-liberal social policy?

Answer 12

It leads to biased social provision, commodification of basic services, inefficiency in private provision, lack of accountability, and exclusion of vulnerable groups

Question 13

What does universalism entail?

Answer 13

It redistributes wealth from the powerful to the less powerful and requires a shared vision of a “good society” through a sustainable social contract

Question 14

What are normative arguments for universalism?

Answer 14

It is based on rights and duties between the state and citizens, securing livelihoods, and enabling participation in society

Question 15

What are practical arguments for universalism?

Answer 15

Universal programs generate economic multipliers, while targeted programs have high administrative costs and often exclude eligible recipients

Question 16

What is the relationship between taxation and state legitimacy?

Answer 16

Tax reliance builds a relationship between the state and citizens, justifying state expenditures and ensuring fiscal justice

Question 17

What are potential revenue sources for social protection?

Answer 17

Domestic taxation (wealth tax), international taxation (Tobin tax), and improved efficiency in tax collection

Question 18

What is the ‘global social floor’?

Answer 18

It ensures basic security for all citizens through pensions, child benefits, employment programs, and universal healthcare

Question 19

How has social protection evolved in developing countries?

Answer 19

It has shifted from short-term safety nets to broader policies integrating poverty reduction, human capital investment, and economic development

Question 20

How do different organizations conceptualize social protection?

Answer 20

World Bank: Social risk management, focusing on income stabilization
ILO: A human rights-based entitlement
UN: A basic needs approach covering income, employment, healthcare, and housing

Question 21

What factors contributed to the rise of social protection?

Answer 21

Structural adjustment failures, financial crises, informal labor growth, globalization-driven poverty, and MDGs emphasizing poverty reduction

Question 22

How did Latin America reform its social protection?

Answer 22

It transitioned from fragmented donor-driven safety nets to large-scale domestic programs like Bolsa Familia (Brazil) and Oportunidades (Mexico)

Question 23

How did South Asia develop social protection?

Answer 23

India’s NREGS guarantees 100 days of work per year
Sri Lanka has the most successful system, while Bangladesh and Pakistan struggle with weak implementation

Question 24

How is social protection in Sub-Saharan Africa characterized?

Answer 24

Historically focused on emergency relief
Pilot cash transfer programs have emerged, but wealthier nations (e.g., South Africa) have stronger systems

Question 25

How do international organizations influence social protection?

Answer 25

ILO supports universalism but lacks financial power World Bank shifted from market-driven to cash transfer approaches IMF prioritizes macroeconomic stability, limiting social spending UN agencies & NGOs support targeted interventions, particularly in health and child welfare

Question 26

What are constraints to expanding social protection?

Answer 26

Limited financing (low tax revenues, poor budget efficiency), weak delivery capacity, corruption, and low public awareness

Question 27

What is the core debate in social protection?

Answer 27

The debate centers on universalism (coverage as a right) vs. residualism (benefits only for the "deserving" poor)

Question 28

What were the failures of targeted social policies?

Answer 28

User fees reduced healthcare and education access, increased inequality, and social funds often benefited well-connected groups

Question 29

How do different regions approach redistribution?

Answer 29

Europe: Supports redistribution to reduce inequality USA: Resists welfare policies, emphasizing upward mobility Latin America: Prioritizes growth over redistribution

Question 30

What is incremental universalism?

Answer 30

A gradual transition to universal protection, starting with minimum benefits and expanding as fiscal capacity grows

Question 31

What are ‘double dividends’ in social protection?

Answer 31

Well-designed programs provide both immediate safety nets and long-term economic growth

Question 32

What did the COVID-19 pandemic reveal about social protection?

Answer 32

It reinforced the need for universal social protection systems by exposing large gaps in coverage, adequacy, and comprehensiveness

Question 33

Why is universalism preferable to targeted approaches in crises?

Answer 33

Universal systems are automatically primed to protect all affected by systemic shocks, unlike targeted approaches, which require complex administrative processes

Question 34

What is poverty targeting?

Answer 34

A mechanism to identify individuals living in poverty for social assistance It may include entitlement conditions like work requirements, health check-ups, or school attendance for children

Question 35

What is a major issue with targeted schemes?

Answer 35

They produce high exclusion errors, with some programs having exclusion rates above 70% Universal schemes have lower exclusion errors (below 10%)

Question 36

How does excessive targeting affect beneficiaries?

Answer 36

It creates complex procedures, turning social workers into gatekeepers who focus on preventing fraud instead of service delivery

Question 37

What is a key argument against excessive targeting?

Answer 37

It increases social stigma, discouraging eligible poor individuals from applying for benefits

Question 38

How do universalist schemes reduce barriers to social protection?

Answer 38

They eliminate the shame of proving poverty, increase public support for redistribution, and improve redistributive outcomes

Question 39

What is the current global coverage gap in social protection?

Answer 39

53% of the global population has no form of social protection, mainly due to underinvestment

Question 40

How do universal social protection systems benefit revenue creation?

Answer 40

They create a virtuous cycle by expanding public funding, offering higher value transfers, and increasing political and economic stability

Question 41

What are the different types of targeting?

Answer 41

Categorical targeting (e.g., age-based pensions, child benefits) Poverty targeting (based on income or assets) Geographic targeting (directs benefits to high-poverty areas) Community-based targeting (relies on local actors to select beneficiaries)

Question 42

What are some documented failures of poverty targeting?

Answer 42

Among 25 programs, less than 25% coverage 12 had exclusion errors above 70%, 5 above 90% Universal programs consistently had exclusion errors below 10%

Question 43

What makes targeting ineffective in low-income countries?

Answer 43

Over 50% of the population is often income-poor, making small-group targeting inequitable and prone to social exclusion

Question 44

What is the human rights perspective on social protection?

Answer 44

Social security is a human right, and international standards (ILO, UN) recognize targeting only as a temporary measure within universal systems

Question 45

What is the economic impact of investing in social protection?

Answer 45

Investing 1% of GDP in social protection has led to tax revenue increases of 2.1%-10.4% over ten years in eight countries

Question 46

What is the relationship between universal social protection and public trust?

Answer 46

Universal systems build trust, encourage tax compliance, promote social cohesion, and lead to stronger state legitimacy

Question 47

Why do universal social protection systems receive more public funding?

Answer 47

They mobilize broad political support across all income levels, unlike poverty-targeted programs, which are often underfunded

Question 48

How did COVID-19 highlight state capacity issues?

Answer 48

It showed that states could act decisively but also exposed deficiencies in regulation, taxation, and service delivery

Question 49

How can digital technology improve targeting?

Answer 49

Big data and machine learning can improve accuracy but also introduce high costs, transparency issues, and privacy risks

Question 50

What were the results of Togo’s Novissi cash transfer program?

Answer 50

Big data improved targeting accuracy by only 5%, demonstrating the limits of digital-based targeting

Question 51

Why is social policy essential for development?

Answer 51

It is not just a safety net but a key part of economic policy, enhancing productivity, workforce stability, and social cohesion

Question 52

What evidence supports social policy as a development strategy?

Answer 52

Nordic countries and early industrializers used strong social policies to boost long-term economic growth

Question 53

What are critiques of prioritizing social policy?

Answer 53

Some argue excessive social spending can strain fiscal resources, discourage investment, and increase dependency

Question 54

How has globalization affected social policy?

Answer 54

It has led to increased privatization of social services, influenced by structural adjustment policies and international financial institutions

Question 55

What are alternative perspectives on globalization and social policy?

Answer 55

Some argue globalization increases resources for social policies through foreign investment rather than restricting them

Question 56

What is a key failure of the “trickle-down” approach?

Answer 56

Economic growth alone does not reduce poverty or inequality; redistributive policies are necessary for equitable development

Question 57

What role did SAPs play in changing poverty policy in the 1980s?

Answer 57

SAPs triggered social unrest, prompting donor institutions to reintroduce the “human” dimension through education, health, safety nets, and later, neoliberal-inspired ideas of opportunity, empowerment, and security

Question 58

How did gender inequality enter development discourse, and what critiques emerged?

Answer 58

Feminist research exposed how unpaid care work supported economies but was excluded from GDP, while neoliberal reforms harmed women through job scarcity, reduced services, male-biased public works, and conditional welfare programs

Question 59

What are horizontal inequalities, and why are they important in development?

Answer 59

Horizontal inequalities are disparities between social groups, which can lead to political exclusion, conflict, and hinder inclusive development

Question 60

What changes does Kabeer propose to address failings in the development agenda?

Answer 60

She calls for bottom-up approaches that integrate social and economic aspects, prioritize redistribution through growth, reject market fundamentalism, and promote institutional pluralism and strong civil society for social justice