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DV400 Concepts 2 > Week 5.2 - Agrarian Change and Agricultural Strategies > Flashcards

Week 5.2 - Agrarian Change and Agricultural Strategies Flashcards

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1
Q

How does soil degradation affect global crop production?

A

Every year, soil degradation erodes 0.5% of global crop production capacity (UNFAO 2015)

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2
Q

What are the key principles of conservation farming?

A

Stop ploughing
Plant cover crops
Promote crop diversity

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3
Q

What are the potential benefits of conservation farming?

A

Can feed the world, cool the planet, reduce pollution, and make family farming profitable

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4
Q

What are the major agricultural issues today?

A

Food security (especially post-pandemic)
Livelihoods of the poor (especially women)
Potential for economic growth
Climate change and sustainability
Land and conflict (e.g. farmer-herder conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa)

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5
Q

Why is agricultural transformation central to development? (4)

A

Most of the population in the poorest countries still lives in rural areas
Many people still depend on agricultural incomes due to a lack of structural transformation
Poverty is still concentrated in rural areas
Agricultural transformation is critical for both industrial development and addressing climate challenges

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6
Q

What percentage of the population is rural in LDCs and SSA?

A

63.6% in LDCs (2023, WDI)
57% in SSA (2023, WDI)

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7
Q

What is the trend in agriculture’s contribution to GDP?

A

It is shrinking, even though many livelihoods still depend on the sector

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8
Q

Where was poverty most concentrated in 2015?

A

75% of the poor were in rural areas

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9
Q

How does agricultural productivity affect poverty reduction?

A

A 1% increase in GDP per worker in agriculture is twice as effective at reducing poverty as in other sectors

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10
Q

How does agriculture support industrial development? (7)

A

Labour force supply
Foreign exchange earnings
Cheap food supply
Savings accumulation
Trade revenue
Backward linkages (e.g. fertilisers, pesticides, farm equipment)
Forward linkages (e.g., food processing, chemical products)

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11
Q

What is agriculture’s role in climate change?

A

Major source of greenhouse gas emissions
Contributes to deforestation, reducing carbon sinks

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12
Q

How does neoclassical economics view agricultural growth?

A

Key to growth, poverty reduction, and sustainability is increasing total factor productivity (TFP)
Global value chains in agriculture and food are crucial (World Bank, 2019).

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13
Q

How does agro-ecology differ from industrial farming?

A

Focuses on peasant farming at the local and national levels
Rejects industrial farming and food empires

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14
Q

What is central to the World Bank’s agricultural strategy?

A

Shift from resource expansion to productivity-led growth (TFP increase)

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15
Q

What is the World Bank’s view on the role of the state? (agriculture)

A

Limited role, except in agricultural R&D (public good), land tenure security, infrastructure investment

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16
Q

What role does the private sector play?(agriculture)

A

Global value chains
Private R&D and contract farming
State-private sector partnerships

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17
Q

How does climate change impact agricultural policy?

A

A 1°C increase reduces cereal yields by 3-10% (UN FAO)

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18
Q

How has agricultural TFP changed globally (1971-2015)?

A

Varied greatly across countries
Africa and South Asia lag in cereal yield gains

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19
Q

What weaknesses did the pandemic expose in farming and food systems?

A

Financialisation of capitalism
Industrial farming reliance on large corporations (“food empires”)
Increased vulnerability of small farmers

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20
Q

How did the neoliberal era redefine ‘food security’?

A

Dependence on international markets for cheap food imports, exporting high-value agricultural products

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21
Q

Which farms were more vulnerable to crises?

A

Heavily indebted industrial farms (e.g. dairy crisis in Europe after 2008-09 financial crisis)

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22
Q

Why can smallholder farms be effective? (6)

A

Mobilise abundant labour (“sweat equity”)
Flexible and cheap household labour
Knowledge of micro-agro-climatic conditions
Inverse relationship between land size and productivity
Lower supervision costs.
Staples production guarantees food security

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23
Q

What conditions must exist for small farms to work?

A

Investment in public goods (irrigation, education, research)
Institutions ensuring property rights and reducing risks
Infrastructure to connect rural farms to markets

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24
Q

When have small farms failed?

A

Unfavourable global value chains
Privatized agricultural research favours large farms
Environmental degradation from intensive farming
Removal of subsidies
Pandemics affecting workers (e.g., HIV/AIDS)
Falling commodity prices

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25
How has China supported smallholder agriculture?
Invested in staple crops Public R&D tailored to different farm sizes
26
Why has SSA struggled with smallholder productivity?
Colonial history prioritised cash crops on large farms
27
What are the arguments for large-scale commercial farming?
Boosts labour productivity (key to poverty reduction) Most effective way to transform SSA agriculture
28
What are arguments for large land acquisitions?
Tax revenue, employment, food security, investment, and environmental protection
29
What are arguments against large land acquisitions?
Displaces the poor, weak property rights, undermines peasant farming
30
What does land reform involve?
Redistribution of land and provision of productive inputs
31
What conditions are necessary for redistributive land reform?
State intervention, credit access, rapid implementation, and land ceilings
32
Why is state intervention necessary for redistributive land reform?
To transform property rights and break landowner-tenant/worker dependence
33
What must producers have access to for successful land reform?
Credit, input markets, and output markets
34
Why must land reform be implemented quickly?
To prevent landowner evasion
35
Why must redistributive reform be comprehensive?
Land ceilings must provide a family livelihood
36
Why should land markets be limited?
To prevent excessive land concentration and speculation
37
Why must we rethink high-value agricultural exports?
The "economy of freshness" requires technological advancements and strong backward and forward linkages, similar to manufacturing
38
How does high-value agriculture affect global labor division?
Differentiates between low-skill retail work and high-skill, tech-intensive roles in education and healthcare
39
How should industrial policy address agriculture?
Promote advanced horticulture and "just-in-time" fresh produce production
40
How does high-value agriculture contribute to structural transformation?
Redefines agriculture's developmental potential in industrial and economic growth
41
Why is bilateral aid to agriculture important?
Low levels of agricultural aid weaken development efforts
42
How does climate change impact agriculture?
Alters agricultural land and production possibilities
43
What new trade opportunities exist in agriculture?
High-value, technology-intensive agricultural products
44
Why is food security a growing concern?
Affected by financial crises, climate change, and pandemics
45
How does rural society pose challenges to state authority?
Political and economic instability in rural areas can undermine governance
46
How did Covid-19 trigger a broader crisis beyond a biomedical emergency?
It led to a deep, global politico-economic crisis affecting food production, processing, distribution, and consumption
47
What vulnerabilities in the global food system did the pandemic expose?
Highly financialised agricultural sector dependent on credit and capital flows Fragile balance between food imports and exports across countries Disconnect between the financial economy and real economy
48
How has financialisation affected the food system?
Agriculture has become too dependent on financial capital, which often acts as a paralysing force rather than a productive one
49
Why does financialisation worsen crises instead of solving them?
Financial capital withdraws investments when risks increase, deepening economic instability
50
Why did food shortages emerge even in food-exporting countries?
Most nations are both importers and exporters of food, so disruptions in trade affect all countries
51
Why is the global food supply chain fragile?
Highly interdependent (disruptions at one point affect the entire system)
52
How do "food empires" contribute to systemic fragility?
Large agribusiness corporations control production, processing, and distribution, rely on credit and debt, and are vulnerable to financial shocks
53
Why were smaller farms more resilient?
They rely on low external inputs, have more diversified production, and carry less debt
54
What historical example illustrates this divide?
Dairy farms during the 2008–2009 crisis, large debt-heavy farms suffered, while smaller diversified farms remained stable
55
Why is large-scale industrial agriculture slow to recover?
It depends on global supply chains for inputs and labour and is highly specialised and inflexible
56
Why has peasant agriculture historically been more resilient in crises?
Self-sufficient in inputs, diverse production, strong local networks
57
What does food sovereignty propose as a solution?
Countries should produce at least 90% of their food domestically and reduce reliance on globalised food chains
58
Why is peasant agriculture a stable alternative to industrial farming?
More resilient, creates employment, and reduces economic precariousness
59
How should peasant agriculture be supported?
Through land reform, agroecological research, and policy incentives
60
How does wealth accumulation contrast with growing poverty?
Food empires become richer, while farmers and workers struggle
61
How does the food system create chronic insecurity for workers?
Migrant labourers face job losses and worsening conditions
62
How does food waste coexist with hunger?
Food is deliberately destroyed to protect market prices, while millions starve
63
What challenges exist in reforming the food system?
Defining the role of the state in supporting alternatives Strengthening cooperation between governments and social movements
64
How is industrial agriculture linked to global crises?
Contributes to climate change, biodiversity loss, and low animal welfare
65
How has the financialisation of agriculture worsened its vulnerabilities?
Made food production highly dependent on financial markets, increasing instability
66
What weaknesses of industrial agriculture did Covid-19 reveal?
Inability to quickly adapt to disruptions due to reliance on global supply chains
67
What are the public health risks of industrial agriculture?
Associated with outbreaks of zoonotic diseases
68
How has the pandemic intensified land concentration?
Capital groups are acquiring land as a safe investment, accelerating rural inequality
69
How does financial capital influence land use?
Shifts agriculture towards profit-driven production rather than food sovereignty
70
What impact does land grabbing have on small farmers?
Dispossession and limited access to land for peasant agriculture
71
How is land being repurposed due to financial capital?
Increasingly used for industrial farming, biofuels, and export crops instead of local food production
72
How does peasant farming differ from large-scale industrial farms?
Operates on local markets, making it less vulnerable to global supply chain shocks
73
How does peasant agriculture support sustainability?
Encourages biodiversity and sustainable food production, unlike monoculture systems
74
Why is improving agricultural productivity essential today?
Ensures food security for a growing population Reduces extreme poverty, as 2/3 of the global extreme poor depend on farming Promotes economic stability, especially in low-income nations
75
Why does productivity growth in agriculture reduce poverty?
Has the greatest impact on poverty reduction, as seen in China and East Asia Urban manufacturing and services have not expanded enough to absorb rural labour in developing countries
76
Why do small farms often outperform large farms in developing countries?
More productive per hectare than large farms
77
Has land redistribution to smallholders improved productivity?
Rarely successful in boosting productivity
78
Why has the traditional view of labour misallocation been questioned?
Productivity gaps between agriculture and industry may be due to capital differences, not misallocation
79
What explains much of the wage gap between agriculture and industry?
Human capital differences (education, age, gender)
80
Why is agricultural R&D important?
Yields high returns --> ver 40% per year in developing countries
81
Why is Africa lagging in agricultural R&D?
Limited research funding Declining research capacity in universities
82
What are policy solutions for strengthening R&D? (agriculture)
Autonomy for public research institutions to increase efficiency Performance-based incentives for scientists Stable and diversified financing (e.g. farmer levies, public-private partnerships) International R&D collaboration (e.g. CGIAR institutions)
83
How can governments encourage private R&D investment?
Reduce regulatory barriers to innovation Strengthen intellectual property rights Support public-private partnerships to transfer innovations to farmers
84
Why do farmers not adopt available technologies? (7)
Policy biases (taxation of agriculture, preference for urban sectors) Low education levels (limits ability to evaluate new technologies) Poor information flow (requires better agricultural extension services) Limited access to finance (restricts investment in modern practices) High risk of technology adoption (discourages investment) Weak land tenure security (reduces willingness to invest in improvements) Poor rural infrastructure (makes technology adoption unprofitable due to high transport costs)
85
How do value chains benefit farmers?
Provide technology, credit, insurance, and market access through integrated contracts Improve farm productivity and output prices Encourage contract-based farming models
86
What are policy priorities for developing agricultural value chains? (5)
Encourage market competition for fair pricing Ease trade barriers for agricultural exports Strengthen contract enforcement between farmers and buyers Invest in rural infrastructure (roads, cold storage) Ensure fair profit distribution to benefit smallholders
87
What are the main challenges? (agricultural productivity growth)
Climate change (rising temperatures reduce crop yields) Degrading natural resources (soil and water depletion) Food security threats (especially in Africa, South Asia, Latin America)
88
What are the three sources of agricultural growth?
Land expansion (increasing cultivated area, improving land quality) Input intensification (using more inputs per hectare (labour, fertiliser, machinery)) TFP growth (using inputs more efficiently)
89
What is the central question addressed in Wiggins (2009) regarding African agriculture?
The paper examines whether smallholder farming can deliver poverty reduction and food security in Africa, despite widespread pessimism due to its geography
90
Why might small farms be more efficient in rural Africa?
In rural Africa, labour is the primary input, where smallholders have an edge, while scale economies related to credit and machinery only benefit large farms in more capital-intensive contexts
91
What disadvantages do large-scale farms face in Africa?
They incur high costs in compliance, regulation, and wages, often making them viable only in niche, high-value markets rather than staple food production
92
What five conditions are necessary for successful smallholder development according to Wiggins?
(1) A fair market environment, (2) public investment in services and infrastructure, (3) strong institutions, (4) domestic demand, and (5) sustainable natural resource management
93
What common objections exist against smallholder viability today, and how does Wiggins respond?
Critics cite supply chains, degraded environments, technology gaps, and low prices, but Wiggins counters with biotech advances (e.g. improved cassava), rising Asian demand, biofuel potential, and survey data supporting small farm relevance
94
What are the three strategies Wiggins proposes for smallholder-inclusive development?
(1) Stepping up via intensification and better access to inputs/credit, (2) Stepping out through education and health for non-farm jobs, and (3) Hanging in with social protection for the most vulnerable
95
How does increased agricultural productivity relate to poverty reduction in Africa?
Improvements in agricultural productivity have been linked to a 7% decline in poverty, though benefits are unevenly distributed and depend on complementary policies
96
What challenge do developing countries face that makes high-value agricultural exports important?
They face balance-of-payments (BoP) constraints, so high-value agricultural exports are crucial for earning foreign exchange, supporting economic growth, and enabling structural transformation
97
Why are traditional sectoral classification systems inadequate for understanding modern agriculture?
They are outdated, ignore the blurred lines between sectors, fail to capture servicification in manufacturing, and overlook the industrialisation of freshness where agriculture adopts industrial and tech-driven processes
98
What is meant by the "industrialisation of freshness" in agriculture?
It refers to agriculture using industrial processes like precision irrigation, cold storage, R&D, just-in-time production, traceability systems, and data-driven management to meet complex global standards
99
Why are non-traditional high-value agricultural exports preferred over bulk commodities?
Exports like fresh fruits, herbs, and flowers have higher value-to-volume ratios, providing greater foreign exchange and employment potential compared to bulk exports like cereals
100
What did empirical research in Ethiopia and South Africa reveal about successful agricultural producers?
Success is driven by large-scale agribusinesses engaged in complex supply chains and roundabout production, not smallholders, and they face challenges in infrastructure, land tenure, and policy support
101
Why is the ISIC classification of plant propagation in Ethiopia misleading?
Although classified as “simple agriculture,” it involves sophisticated technology like €150,000 reverse osmosis systems, computerised fertigation, long-term genetic R&D, phytosanitary standards, and international expert input
102
What makes blueberry production in South Africa comparable to industrial manufacturing?
It is knowledge-intensive with genetic modification, climate adaptation, global marketing (e.g. "superfood" branding), and cold-chain logistics—similar in complexity to pharmaceutical production
103
How does fresh fruit export compare to juice manufacturing in Ethiopia in terms of technological demands?
Though juice manufacturing is classified as "industrial," fresh fruit exports are more complex due to supply chain logistics, perishability, and skill intensity; processing failures were due to supply gaps, not tech limitations
104
How does horticultural export impact infrastructure development in Africa?
In Ethiopia, floriculture led to Ethiopian Airlines expanding cargo services and prompted customs reforms, while in both Ethiopia and South Africa, poor road and shipping infrastructure still severely constrain export potential
105
What infrastructure-related challenges do high-value agriculture exporters face in Africa?
Ethiopian farms suffer up to 12% spoilage from bad roads and require armed truck escorts; South African citrus exporters face shipping inefficiencies, both of which hurt export competitiveness

DV400 Concepts 2 (19 decks)

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