Week 8 - Alternative Development Trajectories: India and China

Question 1

How much of the world population do India and China account for together?

Answer 1

35%

Question 2

How much of the global GDP do India and China account for together?

Answer 2

20.5%

Question 3

At the time of India’s independence and China’s liberation, what were they roughly comparable on?

Answer 3

comparable in developmental terms

Question 4

What were the social movements in 20th century “developing world”?

Answer 4

nationalist movements (centred on national consolidation or independence)
developmentalist movements to catch up with rich countries
“peasant” or rural movements fighting for security or survival

Question 5

What did political organisations do?

Answer 5

built coalitions of various social groups and classes to compete for state power (winners generally captured the leadership of the three social movements (nationalist, developmentalist, “peasant”/rural))

Question 6

What were the other Asian countries experiencing?

Answer 6

Korea and Vietnam experienced major civil wars with substantial external support for contending sides
Southeast Asian countries saw various shades of nationalism combat communist insurgencies (Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia)

Question 7

What was Sub-Sahran Africa experiencing?

Answer 7

competing political currents in movements for decolonisation and development

Question 8

What was the China nationalist democratic revolution (1949-1958)?

Answer 8

promoted a mixed economy
role for patriotic private entrepreneurs along side state enterprises
heavy industry and military industries (features of heavy industry were long gestation, import technology and equipment, huge capital requirement)

Question 9

How was the China land reform and agricultural cooperatives?

Answer 9

peasant security on land
social revolution (eliminating landlords as a class and political actor)
modest improvement of rural incomes and equality of incomes
farm households sell surplus to the state (guarantee an income but purchasing price kept low, resources for industrialisation and rural development)

Question 10

What was the China agriculture and industry relationship?

Answer 10

cheap grain kept wages low in non-agricultural sector
state had to control market
price scissors operates (peasants relatively low prices for produce and high prices for manufactured goods, surplus for export to finance industrial machinery and rural development, kept wages low in cities during formative period (Lewisian logic))

Question 11

What happened during 1949-1956 of China’s incremental development of cooperatives?

Answer 11

impressive record (annual crop production increased 70%)

Question 12

What was the China “Great Leap Forward” (1959-1961)?

Answer 12

acceleration of collectivisation
abolish family plots (communal farming to meet state targets (overestimation of harvests))
labour mobilisation for infrastructure projects
backyard steel furnaces

Question 13

What was China darkest period (famine 1959-1961)?

Answer 13

regionally specific rural famine led to 30 million deaths
four hypotheses of weather, bad policies and management, poor incentives to work, defy provincial comparative advantage

Question 14

What was the China “Cultural Revolution” (1966-1976)?

Answer 14

Mao’s come back (campaign against “capitalist roaders”
mobilised youth and workers (and continued mobilisation of labour in infrastructure projects)
bureaucrats and managers sent to the countryside
production still within commune but disruption of agricultural production ended

Question 15

What is China Era of Reform (1978-now) from 1985-1992?

Answer 15

some prices kept under plan, others determined by market exchange

Question 16

What is China Era of Reform (1978-now)?

Answer 16

agriculture is top policy document each year
confronting increasing Western hostility towards China’s high technology industries

Question 17

What was India rural development and heavy industry (1950s)?

Answer 17

extension services and community development programmes (underfunded and local councils established controlled by elites)
cooperative movement in rural areas (undermined by landowning elites)
invested in heavy industry (like China) (steel, cement, machine making machinery and its already viable textile industry, but did not invest in small-scale industry for domestic consumption to any extent)

Question 18

How was India during 1950s-1980s?

Answer 18

rural political elites blocked efforts to tax agriculture
irrigation not maintained and irrigated area in some cases fell below what it had been in colonial times (water fees not collected) (ground water relied upon, essentially household provided)
unsustainable state provided electricity
35 years after independence, India’s textile industry collapsed (relied heavily on foreign borrowing and failed to adopt new technologies

Question 19

How was India from 1991-2010s?

Answer 19

tentative liberalisation in 1991 ran out of steam in 5 years
failed to attract the kind of FDI that China attracted
“stunted structural transition”, where diversification away from agriculture has been to low value-added services

Question 20

What is the experience of China and India compared like?

Answer 20

China’s revolution in 1949 revitalised an ancient state whereas Indian state was created by British colonialism
China’s post-1949 structural transformation more far reaching than India’s
both leaders understood the only route forward was to mobilise underemployed rural labour and extract value from agriculture

Question 21

What is the experience of China and India compared like in the 1950s?

Answer 21

similar per capita income (death rate per 100 China 20 and India 27.4, life expectancy China 35 and India 32, literacy rate China 20% and India 12.1%)
similar per capita agricultural production (1952 irrigated land about 18%, <1% villages with electricity)
similar industrial production of steel and cement

Question 22

What is the experience of China and India compared like in the 2000s?

Answer 22

China 2 times greater in per capita income (lower poverty, higher literacy, better child nutrition)
China twice yield per hectare (wheat, rapseed, rice)
China’s industry 54% of GDP, India’s industry 26% of GDP

Question 23

How is aid different in India and China?

Answer 23

India world biggest aid recipient, China net aid donor

Question 24

How was human development in China vs India?

Answer 24

China’s big achievements in education
caste system in India blocked advancement

Question 25

What is the summary of China as a development trajectory?

Answer 25

land reform transformed rural social/political structure industrialisation and rural improvement surplus from agriculture for industrialisation and rural development rural collectives "engines of accumulation", integrated agriculture and rural industry land productivity led to improved incomes forward and backward linkages women in farm work allowed male migrant labour improved human development

Question 26

What is the summary of India as a development trajectory?

Answer 26

partial land reforms left stratified rural society industrialisation and rural neglect subsidised rural elite (industrialisation had very little impact on the countryside) rural cooperatives failed land productivity captured by rich peasants few linkages agriculture and industry women participated less in farm work arrested human development

Question 27

What are China's challenges today?

Answer 27

vertical fiscal imbalance local government debt rapid state-led urbanisation environmental degradation real estate bubble stock market crashes

Question 28

How is India today?

Answer 28

set to grow far faster than China in the coming years (but China's economy is 6 times bigger than India's) industrial base is far smaller than while big progress in reducing poverty, per capita income still far lower than China's (Hindu nationalist state legitimised despite high inequality, with reinforcement of privileged castes and "crony capitalists")

Question 29

Which two countries were among the poorest in 1950?

Answer 29

China and India

Question 30

How was India's GDP per capita compared to China's?

Answer 30

India's consistently above China's since 1870 (both countries poor, but China significantly more) situation changed completely in decades following Indian independence (1947) and Chinese Revolution (1949) China's rural economy developed much more rapidly than India's in post-1950 era (rural economy dominated in both until the 1980s, influencing growth trajectories)

Question 31

What is a key reason for China's economic success (over India)?

Answer 31

the different capacity to mobilise labour force and financial resources of rural population

Question 32

How much of the total population did the rural population comprise of in China and India in 1980?

Answer 32

3/4 of the total population

Question 33

How were India and China in the early 1950s?

Answer 33

great majority of both villages lacked basic infrastructure (electricity, irrigation), technology, and a healthy, literate, relatively skilled labour force that were necessary for achieving rapid economic development significant surplus rural labour

Question 34

How were the Indian elites?

Answer 34

efforts of elites (e.g. Zamindars) who mobilised surplus labour force without/with little payment was abolished, however institution which it represented was not replaced (by institution involving organised action based on considerations of community's interest)

Question 35

How were the Chinese rural collectives?

Answer 35

land reform (1947-1952) and rural collectivisation (1952-1956) left no elite intermediary standing between state and peasantry three-tiered hierarchical structure comprising production team at bottom, brigade in middle, commune at top (each team had to distribute its net annual profit among members based on their labour contributions (after paying taxes and contributing to collective accumulation and welfare funds)) created giant non-salaried bureaucracy in countryside (reduced rural administration financial cost significantly) mobilised over 1/4 of total rural labour force in infrastructure works (e.g. irrigation systems, schools, clinics) in 1960s and 1970s (large scale projects (e.g. irrigation, hydropower) often funded and executed through local collective efforts) female labour force participation surged to over 70% in rural areas by late 1970s

Question 36

What was 'compulsory labour' in China?

Answer 36

Chinese government required all collective members to allocate about 3% of their total workdays to capital construction projects without seeking payment

Question 37

What did the Great Leap Forwards (1958-1961) lead to?

Answer 37

led to economic disaster with GDP/capita decreasing by 20% massive transfer of labour and financial resources to infrastructure construction negatively impacted grain production (dramatically decreased labour input in food production) highlighted risks of overconfidence and poor planning (turning mobilisation strategies into disadvantages)?

Question 38

How were India's rural collectives?

Answer 38

village councils were established nationwide but became institutions dominated by private economic interests programs relied significantly on government funds for paid employment instead of labour mobilisation and self-finance, and funds were insufficient for nationwide infrastructure needs (relied heavily on subsidies for electricity and irrigation, burdening state finance without promoting large-scale infrastructure development) minimal agricultural taxation due to political opposition from rural elites

Question 39

How was healthcare and education in China and India?

Answer 39

in China massive literacy (20% in 1950, 90% by 2005) and healthcare campaigns (e.g. barefoot doctors) mobilised rural labour and life expectancy improvements significantly outpaced those of India during same period in India relied on government-funded schools and clinics, constraining outreach, rural literacy reached only 67% by 2011. limited healthcare access contributed to lower life expectancy compared to China

Question 40

What policy adjustments were there in China and India?

Answer 40

in China lessons fro Great Leap Forward mitigated over-mobilisation risks in later decades, retained organisational benefits of collectivisation even after partial market reforms in India land reforms failed due to elite opposition, and populist policies prioritised over resource mobilisation

Question 41

What were the divergent performance of rural economies in China and India?

Answer 41

due to different capabilities of Chinese and Indian governments to mobilise the labour force and financial resources of the rural population

Question 42

What do some scholars say authoritarianism is?

Answer 42

a myth that delivers much more than democracy, particularly early on

Question 43

Is authoritarianism necessary or sufficient for development?

Answer 43

not necessary for development (today's industrial democracies and scattered by cases of development success like Costa Rica, Botswana, India) not sufficient for development (disastrous authoritarian regimes in Africa and elsewhere)

Question 44

What do democracies provide?

Answer 44

generally experience more intense pressure to share development benefits among the people (more sustainable) provide more scope for popular movements against capital excesses and environmental degradation (more political opportunities to mitigate social inequalities that act as barriers to socioeconomic mobility and full individual development) provide better environments for nurturing information technology development (important in the current knowledge-driven global economy)

Question 45

How was democracy in India?

Answer 45

political clientelism and populism, which prioritises short-term benefits (e.g. employment projectors, subsidies, loan waivers) over long-term infrastructure investments (e.g. public health, sanitation, development) ethnic and caste mobilisation often hijacked by elites (poverty alleviation takes backseat to multidimensional demands) governance inefficiencies (reliance on popular mobilisation over deliberation weakens the legislative process, decision deadlocks are frequent with large political and economic costs) the poor are assortative, yet fail to hold politicians accountable for unresolved issues (e.g. poverty, disease, illiteracy), perceiving them as complex phenomena with limited governmental responsibility)

Question 46

How is conflict management in China vs India?

Answer 46

in China there is overreaction to dissent, heavy-handed suppression of information, and censorship exacerbate tensions and hinder crisis management in India democratic pluralism allows more robust conflict resolution mechanisms, though decision-making is slow and prone to deadlocks

Question 47

How is corruption in China vs India?

Answer 47

in China officials' promotions are tied to local economic performance aligning personal gain with public goals, defined lines of authority reduce collective action problems in decision-making, (though sometimes politically motivated) crackdowns on corruption are decisive in China risks of centralised corruption (lack of checks and balances increases risk of systemic abuses and heavy reliance on censorship undermines transparency) in India multiple veto powers, fragmented authority create inefficiency (even after paying bribes, outcomes are uncertain) in India high election costs compel politicians to amass funds (worsening corruption) in India efforts like Right to Information Act reflect public activism against corruption (institutionalised accountability)

Question 48

How is governance in China?

Answer 48

centralised authority (clear hierarchies streamline decision-making and collective action problems (e.g. fiscal centralisation in mid-1990s addressed local fiscal erosion)) decentralisation success (encourages local initiatives driving rural industrialisation and economic growth, promotes innovation through a mix of autonomy and performance-based promotions) challenges of decentralisation (increased regional inequalities and unfunded local mandates lead to public services disparities, local resistance to central policies often due to collusion with businesses interests and suppressed information) policy execution (technocratic leadership ensures decisive policy formulation and execution) social stability (nationalistic pride and economic growth maintain middle-class support for centralised control)

Question 49

How is governance in India?

Answer 49

democratic decentralisation (constitutionally mandated decentralisation aims to empower local governments but often lacks proper funding, skilled personnel and autonomy, some regions show healthy competition and success in poverty alleviation though most rely on top-down programs) centralised weaknesses (fragmented authority leads to inefficiency and unclear accountability, electoral coalitions dilute national goals) strengths are independent judiciary, election commission and legal frameworks ensure institutional resilience and legitimacy

Question 50

What are the challenges China faces?

Answer 50

local fiscal challenges persist, especially in rural regions (lagging areas facing cuts in services) cyber censorship and state control hinder creativity and knowledge flow, risking future technological progress

Question 51

What are the challenges India faces?

Answer 51

lack of investment in roads, electricity, and irrigation due to populist policies (infrastructure bottlenecks) public services delivery undermined by absenteeism, inadequate resources, and lack of accountability caste and ethnic mobilisation often dilute the focus on poverty-related issues political fragmentation prioritises short-term measures over structural reforms

Question 52

How is innovation and technology in China vs India?

Answer 52

in China cybercensorship limits creativity and delays crisis responses (e.g. SARS outbreak) and state control leads to delays in recognising and handling crises due to information suppression in India open media leads to greater transparency and innovation driven by independent NGOs and media watchdogs, however infrastructure weaknesses (persistent bottlenecks) limit technological growth

Question 53

What were the structural similarities in the initial conditions of China and India (1950-1960)?

Answer 53

Both had mass rural poverty under feudal systems, embedded patriarchy with gender oppression, maturing non-agricultural economies, and lacked institutional frameworks for modern economic growth Key statistics: GDP/capita (China: 65, India: 62), agricultural labor force share (China: 77%, India: 72%), and industry labor force share (China: 7%, India: 11%)

Question 54

How did cultural and social conditions differ between China and India?

Answer 54

China had cultural homogeneity with Han dominance and one dominant language, while India had cultural heterogeneity with caste divisions, religious diversity, and fractious social structures

Question 55

How did land reforms differ between China and India?

Answer 55

China implemented equitable land redistribution and collectivised agriculture, dismantling feudal structures India’s land reforms were piecemeal and largely ineffective, preserving landowning elites' power

Question 56

How did rural transformation differ between the two countries?

Answer 56

China used rural collectives as engines of accumulation, integrating agriculture and rural industry, while in India, rural surpluses were often invested in urban trade and property, neglecting rural development

Question 57

What was the primary sector driving development in China and India?

Answer 57

China focused on manufacturing-led development with labor-intensive methods, while India relied on services-led growth, benefiting from a colonial inheritance of a skilled middle class educated in English

Question 58

How did the constitution of state power differ in China and India?

Answer 58

In China, the communist party represented peasants and workers, enabling mass mobilisation for development In India, the independence movement was led by elites, limiting mass participation and reforms

Question 59

How did colonial experiences shape post-independence trajectories?

Answer 59

Japanese colonial violence radicalized China, hastening its revolution British colonial rule in India ensured power remained with the elite, enabling business continuity post-independence

Question 60

What were the structural differences between China and India by 2003?

Answer 60

China’s GDP per capita was twice India’s, literacy rate was 91% in China vs. 65% in India, and underweight children under five were 8% in China vs. 47% in India Life expectancy in China was six years longer

Question 61

How does agricultural performance differ between the two countries?

Answer 61

China outperformed India in agricultural productivity, employment generation, and poverty reduction. Hunger remains a daily reality in India but not in China

Question 62

What socio-economic vulnerabilities have arisen in China despite its growth?

Answer 62

Rising inequality, limited access to expensive health and education, and socio-economic vulnerabilities among the rural population

Question 63

How does India’s agrarian crisis manifest today?

Answer 63

Few rural households earn poverty-line incomes from agriculture, and non-agricultural growth has not significantly increased labor absorption

Question 64

In what ways are China and India converging and diverging?

Answer 64

Convergence: India’s growth rate is approaching China’s. Divergence: India lags in manufacturing, agricultural performance, and poverty reduction, while China lacks political democracy. Pervergence: Both face rising inequality, gender bias, environmental stress, and governance deficits.

Question 65

How does corruption differ between China and India?

Answer 65

In India, political parties, judiciary, and police rank poorly on corruption indices In China, big business is embedded in the communist party, reducing the need for bribes

Question 66

How did per capita income growth compare between China and India from 1913 to 1998?

Answer 66

China’s per capita income grew sevenfold, while India’s only trebled

Question 67

What key reforms did China implement under Deng Xiaoping in 1978?

Answer 67

China focused on export-driven growth and foreign investment, embracing an open-door policy

Question 68

When did India liberalize its economy, and what was the focus before that?

Answer 68

India liberalised in 1991, but prior to that, policies emphasized self-reliance, leading to slower growth

Question 69

Why did China outpace India in Human Development Index (HDI) growth?

Answer 69

Due to significant investments in education and healthcare

Question 70

How does China’s historical governance differ from India’s?

Answer 70

China has a history of centralized, stable governance with uniform systems, while India’s political history is fragmented with diverse regional rule

Question 71

What legacies did British colonialism leave in India?

Answer 71

English language, modern legal systems, railways, and challenges in governance

Question 72

How does China’s political system differ from India’s?

Answer 72

China has a unitary, centralized system allowing rapid policy shifts, while India’s federal democracy progresses through consensus, slowing reform

Question 73

What characterized the first phase of development (1947/49–1978/80) in China and India?

Answer 73

China: Centralised governance led to better outcomes in human development and agrarian reform India: The Green Revolution improved agriculture, but small-scale industrial strategies hampered growth

Question 74

How did China and India differ in the second phase of development (1980–2003)?

Answer 74

China: Adopted an open-door policy with FDI and SEZs, driving rapid growth India: Liberalised its economy post-1991, achieving slower reforms due to democratic constraints

Question 75

What political risks does China face with economic liberalisation?

Answer 75

Economic liberalisation may lead to demands for political freedoms and risks of centralized mismanagement

Question 76

What challenges hinder India’s economic growth?

Answer 76

Corruption, structural issues, and a democratic system that slows decisive policy implementation

Question 77

How does governance accountability differ between China and India?

Answer 77

China, as a one-party state, can implement policies without public opposition, whereas India’s democracy makes implementing unpopular but necessary policies challenging

Question 78

How did China mobilize resources and labor more effectively than India?

Answer 78

By leveraging local taxation at higher levels in communes and transitioning to a market-oriented economy

Question 79

What inequalities persist in China despite its growth?

Answer 79

Growing urban-rural inequality and dissatisfaction among farmers

Question 80

Why does India’s dynamic private sector have limited impact on rural areas?

Answer 80

Corruption and structural issues hinder the sector’s benefits from reaching rural populations

Question 81

What is China’s likely trajectory in global power dynamics?

Answer 81

China is poised to re-emerge as a global power due to its effective resource mobilisation and centralised governance

Question 82

How might India’s growth compare to China’s in the long term?

Answer 82

India may lag in growth convergence with China but will retain its vibrant democracy.

Question 83

Why is India’s democracy both a strength and a challenge?

Answer 83

It ensures responsiveness to the population but limits the implementation of long-term beneficial policies like tax increases or subsidy cuts