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From Flashcardlet > 530c- Respiratory System > Flashcards

530c- Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

External respiration

A

O2 and CO2 exchange between the lungs and blood

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2
Q

Internal respiration

A

O2 and CO2 exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues

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3
Q

Respiratory zone

A

Site of gas exchange

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4
Q

Conducting zone

A

Conduits to gas exchange sites

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5
Q

Respiratory zone includes

A

Respiratory bronchioles

Alveolar ducts

Alveoli

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6
Q

Pharynx connects ___ and ___ superiorly

A

Nasal cavity and mouth

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7
Q

Pharynx conects __ and ___ inferiorly

A

Larynx

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8
Q

Pharynx extends from

A

Base of skull to 6th cervical vertebra

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9
Q

Larynx connects

A

Laryngopharynx with trachea

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10
Q

Function of larynx

A

Provides an open airway

Routes air and food into proper channels

Voice production

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11
Q

Cartilages of larynx

A

Hyaline cartilage, except epiglottis

Thyroid cartilage with laryngeal prominence

Ring-shaped circoid cartilage

Paired arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate cartilages

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12
Q

Vocal folds attach

A

Arytenoid cartilages to thyroid cartilage

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13
Q

Vocal folds contain

A

elastic fibers

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14
Q

Function of vestibular folds

A

Help close glottis during swallowing

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15
Q

Pitch is determined by

A

length and tension of vocal cords

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16
Q

Taut vocal folds produce ___ pitches, and relaxed vocal folds produce ___ pitches

A

High

Low

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17
Q

Loudness depends on

A

force of air

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18
Q

Trachea extends from

A

Larynx into mediastinum

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19
Q

Trachea wall is composed of

A

Mucosa

Submucosa

Hyaline cartilage

Adventitia

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20
Q

Mucosa of trachea consists of

A

ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells

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21
Q

Submucosa of trachea consists of

A

connective tissue with seromucous glands

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22
Q

Adventitia is ___ layer of trachea and made of ___

A

Outermost

Connective tissue

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23
Q

Walls of bronchi contain

A

Rings of cartilage

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24
Q

Walls of bronchioles contain

A

smooth muscle

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25
Q

Primary bronchi supply

A

Each lung

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26
Q

Secondary bronchi supply

A

Each lobe of lungs

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27
Q

Tertiary bronchi supply

A

Each bronchopulmonary segment

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28
Q

___ is absent from bronchioles

A

Cartilage

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29
Q

Structural changes that occur as you go from bronchi to bronchioles

A

Cartilage rings five way to plates

Epithelium changes from pseudostratified columnar to cuboidal

Cilia and goblet cells become sparse

Relative amount of smooth muscle increases

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30
Q

Main site for gas exchange

A

Alveoli

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31
Q

Alveoli are surrounded by

A

fine elastic fibers

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32
Q

Alveoli contain open pore that

A

Connect adjacent alveoli

Allow air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized

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33
Q

Type I alveolar cells- composition

A

Simple squamous cells

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34
Q

Function of Type I alveolar cells

A

Where gas exchange occurs

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35
Q

Structure of type II alveolar cells

A

Free surface has microvilli

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36
Q

Function of type II alveolar cells

A

Secrete alveolar fluid containing surfactant

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37
Q

Alveolar dust cells are

A

wandering macrophages remove debris

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38
Q

4 layers of respiratory membrane that gas has to cross

A

alveolar epithelial wall of type I cells

alveolar epithelial basement membrane

capillary basement membrane

endothelial cells of capillary

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39
Q

Parietal pleura

A

outer layer of lung which is attached to the wall of the thoracic cavity.

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40
Q

Visceral pleura

A

inner layer, covering the lungs themselves.

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41
Q

what is located between visceral and parietal pleura

A

pleural cavity

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42
Q

Pleural cavity contains

A

contains a lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes

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43
Q

Pneumothorax

A

Partial or complete collapse of lung

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44
Q

Hilum is located on

A

Mediastinal surface

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45
Q

Hilum is site for

A

attachment of blood vessels, bronchi, lymphatic vessels, and nerves

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46
Q

Cardiac notch is located on

A

left lung

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47
Q

What is cardiac notch

A

concavity that accommodates the heart

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48
Q

Which lung is smaller

A

Left

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49
Q

Left lung is separated into lobes by

A

an oblique fissure

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50
Q

Number of lobes in left vs right lung

A

Left lung = 2 lobes

Right lung = 3 lobes

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51
Q

Lobes of right lung are separated by

A

Oblique and horizontal fissures

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52
Q

Lobules are served by

A

Bronchioles and their branches

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53
Q

Pulmonary circulation = ___ pressure, ___ volume

A

Low pressure

High volume

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54
Q

___ deliver systemic venous blood

A

Pulmonary arteries

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55
Q

Pulmonary veins carry

A

Oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to the heart

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56
Q

Systemic circulation = ___ pressure, ___ volume

A

High pressure

Low volume

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57
Q

Bronchial arteries provide

A

Oxygenated blood to lung tissue

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58
Q

Bronchial arteries arise from ___ and enter lungs at ___

A

Arise from aorta

Enter lungs at hilum

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59
Q

Bronchial arteries supply all lung tissue except

A

alveoli

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60
Q

Bronchial veins carry

A

Most venous blood back to heart through superior vena cava

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61
Q

Inspiration is a __ process

A

Active

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62
Q

What happens during inspiration

A

Inspiratory muscles contract

Thoracic volume increases

Lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases

Intrapulmonary pressure drops

Air flows into lungs

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63
Q

Diaphram moves __ during contraction

A

Inferiorly

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64
Q

Quiet expiration is a ___ process

A

Passive

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65
Q

What happens during expiration?

A

Inspiratory muscles relax

Thoracic cavity volume decreases

Elastic lungs recoil and intrapulmonary volume decreases

Pulmonary pressure rises

Air flows out of lungs

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66
Q

Forced expiration uses

A

Abdominal and intercostal muscles

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67
Q

Pleural cavity pressure becomes ___ as chest wall expands during inspiration

A

More negative

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68
Q

Inspiratory muscles consume energy to overcome 3 factors that hinder air passage and pulmonary ventilation

A

1) Airway resistance
2) Alveolar surface tension
3) Lung compliance

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69
Q

__ is the major nonelastic source of resistance to gas flow

A

Friction

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70
Q

Gas flow changes ___ with resistance

A

Inversely

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71
Q

Airway resistance is usually insignificant because of

A

Large airway diameters in the first part of the conducting zone

Progressive branching of airways as they get smaller, increasing the total cross-sectional area

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72
Q

Resistance disappears at ___ where ___ drives gas movement

A

Disappears at terminal bronchioles

Diffusion drives gas movement

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73
Q

___ dilates bronchioles and reduces air resistance

A

Epinephrine

74
Q

In the lung, surface tension causes

A

the alveoli to assume the smallest possible diameter

75
Q

During breathing, surface tension must be overcome to

A

Expand the lungs during each inhalation

76
Q

Surfactant

A

Lipid and protein complex produced by type II alveolar cells

77
Q

Function of surfactant

A

Reduces surface tension of alveolar fluid and discourages alveolar collapse

78
Q

Insufficient quantity of surfactant in premature infants causes

A

Infant respiratory distress syndrome

79
Q

Lung compliance

A

A measure of the change in lung volume that occurs with a given change in transpulmonary pressure

80
Q

Lung compliance is normally high due to

A

Distensibility of the lung tissue

Alveolar surface tension

81
Q

Lung compliance is diminished by

A

Nonelastic scar tissue (fibrosis)

Reduced production of surfactant

Decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage

82
Q

Homeostatic imbalances that reduce compliance

A

Deformities of thorax

Ossification of the costal cartilage

Paralysis of intercostal muscles

83
Q

Eupnea

A

Normal variation in breathing rate and depth

84
Q

Dyspnea

A

Painful or difficult breathing

85
Q

Apnea is

A

Breath holding

86
Q

Tachypnea

A

Rapid breathing rate

87
Q

Costal breathing requires

A

combinations of various patterns of intercostal and extracostal muscles

88
Q

Costal breathing usually occurs

A

During need for increased ventilation, as with exercise

89
Q

Diaphragmatic breathing

A

the usual mode of operation to move air by contracting and relaxing the diaphragm to change the lung volume.

90
Q

Modified respiratory movement are used to

A

express emotions and to clear air passageways

91
Q

Coughing involves

A

deep inspiration

closure of rima glottidis & strong expiration blasts air out to clear respiratory passages

92
Q

Hiccuping invovles

A

spasmodic contraction of diaphragm & quick closure of rima glottidis produce sharp inspiratory sound

93
Q

Crying involves

A

An inhalation followed by many short convulsive exhalation, during which the rima glottis remains open and the vocal fold vibrates

94
Q

Laughing vs crying

A

Laughing mechanism is similar, but the rhythm and facial expressions are different

95
Q

TV

A

Tidal volume

Amount of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath under resting conditions

96
Q

IRV

A

Inspiratory reserve volume

Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation

97
Q

ERV

A

Expiratory reserve volume

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation

98
Q

RV

A

Residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation

99
Q

IC

A

Inspiratory capacity

Maximum amount of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration

100
Q

FRC

A

Functional residual capacity

Volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal volume expiration

101
Q

VC

A

Vital capacity

Maximum amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort

102
Q

TLC

A

Total lung capacity

Maximum amount of air contained in lungs after a maximum inspiratory effort

103
Q

Anatomical dead space

A

Volume of the conducting zone conduits

104
Q

Alveolar dead space

A

alveoli that cease to act in gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction

105
Q

Total dead space

A

anatomical dead space + alveolar dead space

106
Q

Minute ventilation

A

Total amount of gas flow into or out of the respiratory tract in one minute

107
Q

FVC

A

Forced vital capacity

Gas forcibly expelled after taking a deep breath

108
Q

FEV

A

Forced expiratory volume

The amount of gas expelled during specific time intervals of the forced vital capacity (FVC)

109
Q

AVR

A

Alveolar ventilation rate

flow of gases into and out of the alveoli during a particular time

110
Q

What decreases AVR?

A

Rapid, shallow breathing

111
Q

Dead space is normally

A

constant

112
Q

Spriometry can distinguish between

A

Obstructive pulmonary disease vs. restrictive disorders

113
Q

Obstructive airway disease + example

A

Increased airway resistance

Bronchitis

114
Q

Restrictive disorders + examples

A

disorders—reduction in total lung capacity due to structural or functional lung changes

Fibrosis or TB

115
Q

Solubility of CO2 vs O2 vs N2

A

CO2 is 20xs more soluble in water than O2

Very little N2 dissolves in water

116
Q

Alveoli contain more __ and ___ than atmospheric air

A

CO2 and water vapor

117
Q

Alveoli contain more CO2 and water vapor than atmospheric air, due to

A

Gas exchanges in the lungs

Humidification of air

Mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each breath

118
Q

External respiration is

A

Exchange of O2 and CO2 across the respiratory membrane

119
Q

External respiration is influenced by

A

Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities

Ventilation-perfusion coupling

Structural characteristics of the respiratory membrane

120
Q

Partial pressure gradient for O2 in lungs is

A

Steep

121
Q

Partial pressure gradient for CO2 in lungs is

A

Less steep than O2

122
Q

CO2 diffuses in equal amounts with

A

Oxygen

123
Q

Ventilation

A

amount of gas reaching the alveoli

124
Q

Perfusion

A

blood flow reaching the alveoli

125
Q

___ and ___ must be matched for efficient gas exchange

A

Ventilation and perfusion

126
Q

Ventilation and perfusion are controlled by

A

Local autoregulatory mechanisms

127
Q

Changes in PO2 in the alveoli causes changes in

A

the diameters of the arterioles

128
Q

When alveolar O2 is high

A

Arterioles dilate

129
Q

When alveolar O2 is low

A

Arterioles constrict

130
Q

Changes in PCO2 in alveoli cause changes in

A

Diameters of bronchioles

131
Q

When alveolar CO2 is high

A

Bronchioles dilate

132
Q

When alveolar CO2 is low

A

Bronchioles constrict

133
Q

Respiratory membranes thicken if

A

Lungs become waterlogged and edematous

Gas exchange becomes inadequate

134
Q

Reduction in surface area of respiratory membrane occurs with

A

Emphysema, when walls of adjacent alveoli break down

135
Q

Internal respiration- PO2 is tissues is ___ than in systemic arterial blood

A

Lower

136
Q

Loading and unloading of O2 is facilitated by

A

Change in shape of hemoglobin

137
Q

Rate of loading and unloading of O2 is regulated by

A

Po2

Temperature

Blood pH

Pco2

Concentration of BPG

138
Q

In arterial blood, hemoglobin is __% saturated

A

98%

139
Q

In venous blood, hemoglobin is __% saturated

A

75%

140
Q

__% of bound O2 is unloaded during 1 systemic circulation

A

20-25%

141
Q

___ causes O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve to shift to the right

A

Increase in temperature

Increase in H+ (decrease in pH)

Increase in PCO2

Increase in BPG

142
Q

Increase in temperature, H+, PCO2, and BPG occurs in + causes

A

Occurs in systemic capillaries

Decreases affinity of Hb for O2

Enhances O2 unloading

143
Q

What causes O2-hemoglobin curve to shift to the right

A

Decrease in temperature

Decrease in H+

Decrease in PCO2

Decrease in BPG

144
Q

As cells metabolize glucose

A

PCO2 and H+ increase in concentration in capillary blood

Lower pH weakens Hb-O2 bond

145
Q

CO2 is transported in blood in 3 forms:

A

7-10% dissolved in plasma

20% bound to globin of Hb

70% transported as bicarbonate ions in plasma

146
Q

Equation for transport and exchange of CO2

A

CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3-

147
Q

In systemic capillaries, HCO3-

A

diffuses from RBCs into the plasma and Cl- moves in from the plasma (chloride shift)

148
Q

In pulmonary capillaries, HCO3-

A

moves into the RBCs and binds with H+ to form H2CO3

H2CO3 is split by carbonic anhydrase into CO2 and water

CO2 diffuses into the alveoli

149
Q

Haldane effect

A

The amount of CO2 transported is affected by the Po2

The lower the Po2 and hemoglobin saturation with O2, the more CO2 can be carried in the blood

150
Q

Haldane Effect- at the tissues, as more CO2 enters the blood

A

More oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin

As HbO2 releases O2, it more readily forms bonds with CO2 to form carbaminohemoglobin

151
Q

Effect of slow breathing on pH

A

slow shallow breathing allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood, causing pH to drop

152
Q

Control of respiration invovles

A

neurons in the reticular formation of the medulla and pons

153
Q

Medullary respiratory centers are

A

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

154
Q

Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)- location

A

Near the root of cranial nerve IX (glossopharyngeal)

155
Q

Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG)- function

A

Integrates input from peripheral stretch and chemoreceptors

156
Q

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)- function

A

Rhythm-generating and integrative center

Sets eupnea (12–15 breaths/minute)

Inspiratory neurons excite the inspiratory muscles via the phrenic and intercostal nerves

Expiratory neurons inhibit the inspiratory neurons

157
Q

Function of pontine respiratory centers

A

Influence and modify activity of the VRG

Smooth out transition between inspiration and expiration and vice versa

158
Q

Depth of breathing is determined by

A

how actively the respiratory center stimulates the respiratory muscles

159
Q

Rate of breathing is determined by

A

how long the inspiratory center is active

160
Q

If PCO2 levels rise

A

CO2 accumulates in the brain –> CO2 is hydrated –> carbonic acid dissociates, releasing H+ –> H+ stimulates central chemoreceptors of the brain stem –> chemoreceptors synapse with the respiratory regulatory centers, increasing the depth and rate of breathing

161
Q

Hyperventilation is

A

increased depth and rate of breathing that exceeds the body’s need to remove CO2

162
Q

Hyperventilation causes

A

CO2 levels to decline –> cerebral vasoconstriction and cerebral ischemia

163
Q

___ and ___ are O2 sensors

A

Peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies

164
Q

When peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies are excited,

A

they cause the respiratory centers to increase ventilation

165
Q

___ must occur to stimulate increased ventilation

A

Substantial drops in arterial PO2 (to 60 mm Hg)

166
Q

Arterial pH can modify

A

respiratory rate and rhythm even if CO2 and O2 levels are normal

167
Q

Decreased pH may reflect

A

CO2 retention

Accumulation of lactic acid

Excess ketone bodies in patients with diabetes mellitus

168
Q

Respiratory system controls with attempt to raise pH by

A

increasing respiratory rate and depth

169
Q

___ are the most powerful respiratory stimulant

A

Rising CO2 levels

170
Q

Blood PO2 affects breathing only ___ by influencing ___

A

Only indirectly by influencing peripheral chemoreceptor sensitivity to changes in Pco2

171
Q

When arterial PO2 falls below 60 mm Hg, it becomes

A

the major stimulus for respiration (via the peripheral chemoreceptors)

172
Q

Changes in arterial pH resulting from CO2 retention or metabolic factors act ___ through ____

A

Indirectly through the peripheral chemoreceptors

173
Q

Hypothalmic controls act though ___ to modify ___

A

Limbic system to modify rate and depth of respiration

174
Q

Rise in body temperature acts to

A

increase respiratory rate

175
Q

Cortical controls are

A

direct signals from the cerebral motor cortex that bypass medullary controls

176
Q

Receptors in bronchioles respond to ___ and promote

A

respond to irritants

promote reflexive constriction of air passages

177
Q

Receptors in larger airways mediate

A

cough and sneeze reflexes

178
Q

Hering-Breuer Reflex

A

Stretch receptors in the pleurae and airways are stimulated by lung inflation

179
Q

Hering Breuer Reflex- Inhibitory signals to the medullary respiratory centers

A

End inhalation and allow expiration to occur

180
Q

Hering Breuer Reflex acts as

A

a protective response rather than a normal regulatory mechanism

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