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Bio 223 > Ch. 14 > Flashcards

Ch. 14 Flashcards

1
Q

Sensation

A

Process initiated by stimuli acting on sensory receptors

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2
Q

Perception

A

he conscious awareness of sensations

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3
Q

Senses

A

The means by which the brain receives info about environment and the body

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4
Q

What are the 2 groups senses are divided into?

A

General and special

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5
Q

General senses

A

Have receptors distrubuted over a large part of the body

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6
Q

What are the 2 groups general senses are divided into?

A

Somatic and Visceral

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7
Q

Somatic senses

Provides info about what?

What is the receptor type?

A
  • *Provide sensory info about the body and environment**
    1. Touch
    2. Pressure
    3. Temp
    4. Pain
    5. Proprioception

Receptor type -

Mechanoreceptors, Thermoreceptors, Noreceptors

Nerve ending -

Meissner corpusle, Hair follicle, Merkel disc, Pacinan corpuscle, free nerve ending, Ruffini end organ

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8
Q

Proprioception

A

The sense of your bodies position and movement

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9
Q

Visceral senses

Provides info about what?

What is the receptor type?

What are the nerve endings?

A

Info about various internal organs and consists primarly of

  1. Pain
  2. pressure
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10
Q

Special senses

A

are localized to specific organs that have specialized receptors

Smell, tasts, sight, hearing, and balance

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11
Q

What are the 3 criteria used to classify sensory recpetors?

A
  1. Type of stimulus they detect
  2. Location in the body
  3. Receptor structure
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12
Q

What are the 5 types of sensory receptors based on type of stimulus they detect?

A
  1. Mechanoreceptors
  2. Chemoreceptors
  3. Thermoreceptors
  4. Photoreceptors
  5. Nociceptors
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13
Q

What are Mechanoreceptors ?

A

Respond to mechanical force such as compression, bending or stretching of cells.

Physical simulus

** the senses of touch, pressure (BP), proprioception, hearing and balance all depend on a variety of mechanoreceptors

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14
Q

Chemoreceptors

A

Respond to chemicals

*Smell and taste depend on chemoreceptors

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15
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

Respond to changes in temp at site of receptor

There are more cold then there are hot receptors

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16
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Respond to light striking the receptor cells and are necessary for vision

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17
Q

Nociceptors

A

Aka Pain receptors

Respond to extreme mechanical., chemical and thermal stimuli

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18
Q

What are the 3 types of sensory receptors based on their location?

A

Cutaneous receptors

Viscerorecepors

Proprioceptors

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19
Q

Cutaneous receptors

A

Are associated with skin. Provide info about external environment

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20
Q

Viscerorecpetors

A

Associated with the viscera or organs, provide info about internal environment

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21
Q

Proprioceptors

A

associated with joints, tendons and other connective tissue

Provide info about body position, movement, and extent of stretch or force of muscular contractions

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22
Q

What are the 8 type of sensory recpetors based on structure?

A

Free nerve ending
Merkel Disc
Hair follicle
Pacinian corpuscle
Meissner corpuscle
Ruffini end organ
Muscle spindle
Golgi tendon organ

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23
Q

Free nerve endings

Definition

Location

​Responsible for / Involved in

A

Relatively unspecialized neuronal branches simular to dendrites

Distrubuted through out most parts of body and are especially abundent in epithelial and connecive tissues

*Responsible for a number of sensations, pain, temp, itch and movement

Can be either tonic or phasic

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24
Q

Cold receptor

A

Increases it rate of action potential production as the skin is cooled

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25
Q

Warm receptors

A

Increases the rate of AP production as skin temp increases

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26
Q

Merkel discs

Defination

Location

​Responsible for

A

AKA Tactile disks

Consists of axonal branches that end as flattened expansions each associated with an epithelial cell.

Distrubted throughout the basal layers of epidermis just superficial to basement membrane

*involved in sensations of light touch and superficial pressure/ can detect skin displacement of less than 1 mm

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27
Q

Hair follicle receptors

Definition

Location

​Responsible for / Involved in

A

Respond to very light bending of the hair

*are involved in light touch

Not very localized but very sensitive

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28
Q

Pacinian corpuscles

Aka Lamellated corpuscles

Definition

Location

​Responsible for / Involved in

A

Complx receptors that resemble an onion
a single dendrite extends to the center of each pacinian corpuscle.

located within subcutaneous tissue.

Responsible for deep cutaneous pressure and vibration

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29
Q

Meissner corpuscles

Definition

Location

​Responsible for / Involved in

A

AKA tactile corpuscles

Evaluating texture

Distributed through out the dermal papillae
Involved in 2 point discrimination

numerous and close together in tounge and fingertips

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30
Q

2 point discrimination

A

ability to detect simulaneous simulation of 2 meissner corpuscles in 2 disinct receptor fields bu touching 2 points on skin

Numerous on tounge and fingertips

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31
Q

Ruffini end organs

Definition

Location

​Responsible for / Involved in

A

Located in dermis of skin, primarily in fingers

Respond to pressure on skin directly superficial to receptor and to stretch of adjacent skin.

Important in continous touch or pressure

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32
Q

Muscle spindles

A

3-10 specialized muscle fibers that are located in skeletal muscles; provide info about length of muscle

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33
Q

Golgi tendon organs

A

Proprioceptive receptors associated with fibers of a tendon near the junction between the muscle and tendon

activated by an increase in tendon tension

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34
Q

Receptor potentional

A

Once the sensory receptor has been stimulated it produces a graded potential called receptor potential.

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35
Q

Primary receptors

A

Sensory receptor is the sensory neuron

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36
Q

Secondary receptors

A

Specialized cell that releases neurotransmitters to the senosry neuron to activate an action potential

*Receptor cells of taste, hearing and balance belong to this category

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37
Q

Adaptation

A

decreased sensitivy to continued stimulus.

Example clothes touching skin

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38
Q

Tonic receptors

A

Generate action potentials as long as stimulus is applied to they adapt very slowly

*Merkel disc and ruffini end organs

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39
Q

Phasic receptors

A

adapt rapidlly so they are more sensitive to changes in stimuli

Pacinian and meisseners

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40
Q

Some ascending pathways in CNS names start with ________ & end with_________

Others pathways indicate_________?

A

Origin

termination

Ex. Spinocerebellar

Location in spinal cord

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41
Q

What is the 3 neuron pathway?

A

Primary (Sensory recptor) - From PNS->Posterior horn->Synapse with interneuron

Secondary (Interneuron) - Decussate to other side, enter spinothalamic tract, ascend to thalamus

Tretiary - Thalamus to somaticsensory cortex

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42
Q

The 2 major pathways involved in conscious perception of external stimuli are

A
  1. Spinothalamic tract of anterolaeral system
  2. Dorsal-column/medial -lemniscal system
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43
Q

Anterolateral system

A

1 of 2 major systems that convey cutaneous sensory info to the brain

Includes 3 tracts: Spinothalamic, spinoreticular, spinomesencaphalic

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44
Q

Spinothalamic tract

A

Allows conscious perception of pain and temp as well as light touch, pressure, tickle, and itch

  1. Receptors go into dorsal root ganglion
  2. Connect with secondary neruon, desuccate and ascend to thalamus
  3. Connect to tretiary neuron and go to somaticsensory area of cerebral cortex
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45
Q

Spinoretuclar tract & Spinomesencephalic tract

A

Carry pain and touch sensations to other parts of brain, where info is not consciously perceived

**Some spinoretuclar tracts do not cross over bu ascend on the ipsilateral side of spinal cord

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46
Q

Primary neurons of spinothalamic tract..

A

1st neurons in pathway

Connect sensory recptor with spinal cord

Primary neuron cell bodies are located in dorsal root ganglia

Relay sensory input from the periphery to the dorsal horn of spinal cord where they synpase with interneurons

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47
Q

Secondary neurons in spinothalamic tract…

A

relay info to brain

within spinal cord, axons from 2nd neuron cross or decussate to the opposite side of spinal cord (occurs in anerior portion of gray and white commissures) Axons then enter spinothalamic tract and ascend to thalamus. They then synapse with tertiary neurons

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48
Q

Tertiary neurons in spinothalamic tract…

A

in the thalamus relay info to neurons in somatosensory cortex

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49
Q

Spinotectal tract

A

A portion of the spinomesencephalic tract that ends in superior colliculi and transmits action potentials involved in relfexes that turn head and eyes toward cutaneous stimulation

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50
Q

Dorsal column/Medial lemniscal system

A

Consists of 2 pathways that carry the sensation of 2 point discrimination, proprioception, pressure and vibration to cerebellum and cerebrum

  1. Primary neurons enter dorsal root ganglion from different locations. 1 for lower limbs/trunk and 1 for upper limb/trunk
  2. Ascend to the gracile and cutaneate nuclei synapse with secondary neuron, then decussate and ascend to thalamus
  3. Synapse with third order neuron then ascend to primary somatosensory cortex

*Primary neurons are located in dorsal root ganglia, are the largest cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia

Lemniscus means ribbon for thin like ribbon appearance of the pathway

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51
Q

Dorsal column/Medial lemniscal system are divided into what 2 tracts?

A

based on source of stimulus

Fasciculis gracilis and necleus gracilis

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52
Q

Fasciculus gracilis

A

Conveys sensations from lower part of the body, below the mid thoracic level

Middle tract

Terminates at Nucleus gracilis by synapsing with secondary neurons in medulla oblongata

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53
Q

Fasciculus cuneatus

A

conveys sensations from upper part of body, above the mid thorax

outer tract

terminates at nucleus cunteatus by synpasing with 2ndary neurons located in medulla oblongata

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54
Q

Trigeminothalamic tract

A

Facial equivalent of spinothalamic and dorsal-column/medial -lemniscal system / Carries sensory info from face, nasal cavity, and oral cavity including teeth

Cranial nerve V -The trigeminal nerve

First order neuron enters at dorsal root ganglion at pons. 1 neuron goes down to medulla and synapses with 2nd order neuron while other synapses with 2nd order neuron in the PONS
Second order neruons ascend to thalamus synapse with 3rd order neuron and ascend to primary somatosensory cortex

55
Q

Spinocerebellar tracts

A

carry proprioceptive info to the cerebellum (unconscious)

*Posterior and anterior tracts

Primary neuron goes into spinal cord, synapses with 2ndary neuron in gray matter and ascends to cerebellum. No desucating

56
Q

What are the 2 Spinocerebellar tracts?

A

Posterior spinocerebellar tract and anterior spinocerebellar tract

57
Q

Posterior spinocerebellar tract

A

Carries info from upper part of body in the thoracic and upper lumbar regions. Contains uncrossed nerve fibers that enter cerbellum through inferior cerebellar peducles

58
Q

Anterior spinocerebellar tract

A

Carries info from the lower trunk and lower limbs. contains both crossed and uncrossed nerve fibers that enter cerebellum through superior cerebellar peduncle

59
Q

Not tested on

Pain

A

a sensation characterized by a group of unpleasant and complex perceptual and emotional expierences that trigger autonomic, psychological and somatic motor responses

60
Q

Not tested on

What are the 2 components of pain sensation?

A
  1. Rapidlly conducted action potentials carried by large diameter, myelinated axons, resulting in sharp, well localized, pricking or cutting pain
  2. Followed by more slowly propagated action potentials carried by smaller less heavily myelinated axons resulting in diffuse burning or aching pain.
61
Q

Not tested on

Gate control theory

A

Primary neurons send out collateral branches that synapse with interneurons which have a inhibitory effect thus pain action potentials can be suppressed

62
Q

Not tested on

Analgesics

A

pain relieving medications that act in the same way as gate control

63
Q

Not tested on

Referred pain

A

a painful sensation in a region of the body that is not the source of the pain stimulus

Pain is most commonly referred to the most superficial structures

64
Q

Not tested on

Chronic pain

A

Long lasting pain

65
Q

Primary sensory areas

A

specific regions of cerebral cortex where Sensory pathways project to

*Where sensations are percieved

66
Q

Primary somatosensory cortex

A

Aka General sensory area

Recieves general input such as pain, pressure and temp from thalamus

67
Q

Homunculus

A

Little human

68
Q

Projection

A

Allow the brain to refer to a stimulus to the appropriate location on the surface of the body

69
Q

What are the areas immediately adjacent to the primary sensory area called?

A

Association areas

70
Q

Somatosensory association area

A

posterior to somatosensory cortex

Functions with visual association cortex in process of recognition

71
Q

Visual association area

A

anterior to visual cortex

Functions with somatosensory association area in process of recognition

72
Q

Upper motor neurons

A

Connect the cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons directly or through interneurons

Cell bodies are located in cerebral cortex

73
Q

Lower motor neurons

A

Connect upper motor neurons to skeletal muscles

Synapse in anterior gray horn/ lower motor neuron cell bodies are in anterior gray horn

Have axons that leave CNS and extend through peripheral nerves to innervate skeletal muscles

74
Q

Premotor area of cerebral cortex

A

staging area where motor functions are organized before they are initiated

*More subconscious

75
Q

Prefrontal area

A

Controls motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movements

*conscious

Also involved in regulation of emotional behavior and mood

76
Q

Desending motor fibers are divided into what 2 groups?

A

Direct and indirect

77
Q

Direct pathways

AKA pyramidal system

A

Upper motor neurons synpase directly with lower motor neurons in brainstem or spinal cord

Involved in maintaining muscle tone and controlling the speed and precision of skilled movements

Primarily fine movments involved in dexterity

*Only exist in mammals

78
Q

Indirect pathways

aka Extrapyramidal system

A

Control conscious and unconscious movements in trunk and proximal limbs

involved in less precise control of motor functions, especially those associated with overall body coordination and cerebellar function such as posture

Upper and lower motor neurons do not directly connect bvut synapse with intermediate nucleaus in brain stem

79
Q

Corticospinal tract

Controls?

Direct or indirect pathway?

Types of tracts?

A

involved in direct cortical control of movements below the head

Direct pathway

Lateral corticospinal tract and Anterior corticospinal tract

80
Q

Corticobulbar tract

A

involved in direct cortical control of movements in the face and tounge

Involves cranial nerves VII facial & XII hypoglossal

  1. Start at cortex descend through cerebral peduncles
  2. 1 connects to lower motor nueron in the PONs & Facial nerve while the other descends down to the medulla and connects to lower motor neuron and hypoglossal nerve
81
Q

Cranial nerve nuclei

A

give rise to nerves that control tounge movements, mastication, facial expression, some eye movements, palatine, pharyngeal and laryngeal movements

82
Q

What are the indirect pathways

A

upper and lower motor neurons synapse in an intermediate mass

83
Q

Rubrospinal tract

A

Upper neurons synapse in red nucleus - decussates in midbrain and descends in lateral column of spinal cord

Major role in regulating fine motor control of muscles in distal part of upper limb

84
Q

Vestibulospinal tracts

A

Originate in vestibular nuclei of Medulla oblongata and descend in anterior column of spinal cord, then synapse with interneurons and lower motor neurons

primary maintaince of upright posture

innervating extensor muscles in trunk and proximal portions of lower limb

85
Q

Reticulospinal tract

A

originates in reticular formaion of pons and medulla oblongata and descends in lareral column of spinal cord

maintains posture by controlling trunk and proximal upper and lower limb muscles during certain movments

86
Q

Tectospinal tract

A

originates in superior colliculus

Controls reflex movment of head to bright lights., noises and rapid movements

87
Q

Basal nuclei

A

important in planning, organizing and coordinating motor movements and posture

Parkinson disease and cerebral palsy are basal nuclei disorders

88
Q

Not tested on

The cerebellum consists of what 3 functional parts

A

Vestibulocerebellum
Spinocerebellum
Cerebrocerebellum

89
Q

Not tested on

Vestibulocerebellum AKA flocculonodular lobe

A

Recives direct input from the vestibular structures especially the semicircular canals

Helps maintain muscle tone in postural muscles
Also helps control balance, especially during movements and corrdinate eye movement

90
Q

Spinocerebellum

A

Consists of vermis and medial portion of the lateral hemisphere.

Helps accomplish fine motor coordination of simple movements

91
Q

Not tested on

Comparator

A

sensing device that compares data from 2 sources

92
Q

Cerebrocerebellum

A

Consists of the lateral 2/3rds of the lateral hemispheres. Communicates with motor, premotor and prefrontal portions of cerebral cortex in planning and practicing rapid, complex motor actions that require coordination and training

also involved in cognitive functions such as rhythm, concepttualization of time intervals, some word associations and solutions to peg board puzzles

93
Q

Cerebellar disfunction results in

A
  1. Decreased muscle tone
  2. Balance impairment
  3. a tendency to overshoot when reaching for or touching an object
  4. an intention tremor which is shaking in hands that occurs while attempting to perfrom a task
94
Q

Reticular formation

A

group of nuclei scattered throughout the brainstem that is involved in regulating cyclical motor functions

95
Q

Reticular activating system (RAS)

A

Regulates sleep-wake cycle

is a bundle of nerves at our brainstem that filters out unnecessary information so the important stuff gets through

Recieves input from cranial nerves, optic and vestibulocochlear

Wakefullness is maintained by info coming in from eyes, ears and info from cerebral cortex.

96
Q

Motor ouput projecting through the brainstem can be classified into what 2 categories

A

Somatic motor and parasympathetic

97
Q

What 2 areas are involved in speech?

A

Wernicke area - Sensory part of parietal lobe

& Broca area - motor part of frontal lobe

98
Q

What is the process for someone to speak a word they see?

A
  1. Primary visual cortex - action potentials from eyes reach primary visual cortex. Word is recognized in visual association area
  2. Wernicke area - word is understood
  3. Broca area - Action potentials connect wernicke area to broca area. word is formulated as it would be spoken
  4. Primary motor cortex - action potentials propagted to the premotor area, then to primary motor cortex where proper movements are triggered
99
Q

Brain waves

A

patterns of electrical activity

Produced continually but their intensity and frequency differ from time to time based on state of brain activiy

100
Q

Regular brain wave patterns are classified as

A

1 Alpha

  1. Beta
  2. Theta
  3. Delta waves
101
Q

Alpha waves

A

observed in an normal person who is awake but in a quiet resting state with eyes closed

102
Q

Beta waves

A

Occur during intense mental activity

103
Q

Theta waves

A

usually occur in children but can also occur in adults who expierence frustration or certain brain disorders

104
Q

Delta waves

A

Occur in infants , in patients with severe brain disorders, and in people who are in a deep sleep

105
Q

Not tested on

Evoked potentials

A

Electrical responses caused by light, sound, or somatosensory stimuli

106
Q

Not tested on

What are the 3 stages of the storage of memory?

A

Working
Short term
Long term

107
Q

Not tested on

Working memory

A

Task associated memory

Brain briefly stores info required for the immediate performance of a task.

it lasts only a few seconds but is highly detailed

Occurs mostly in frontal cortex

108
Q

Not tested on

Short term memory

A

Can be stored from minutes to days

*Susceptible to brain trauma

109
Q

Not tested on

Long term memory

A

Requires prior formation of short term memory

more stable memory last days to years to lifetime

110
Q

Not tested on

Consolidation

A

Process of transferring short term memory to long term

Gradual process involving the formation of new and stronger synpatic connections

111
Q

Not tested on

Declarative memory

A

Explict memory
Involveds retention of facts you can easily state or declare

Names/dates/places

Hippocampus - factual content, name
Amygdala - emotional overtones to memory

112
Q

Not tested on

What is the process of cerebellar comparator function?

A
  1. Motor Cortex sends action potentials to lower motor neurons
  2. Action potentials from motor cortex inform cerebellum of intended movement
  3. Lower motor neurons cause skeletal muscles to move
  4. Proprioceptors signals from skeletal muscles and joints send info to cerebellum about movment and postion
  5. Cerebellum compares info
  6. Action potentials from cerebellum to spinal cord modify stimulation from lower motor neurons to skeletal muscls
  7. action potentials sent from cerebellum to cortex to modify movement
113
Q

Not tested on

Procedural memory

A

Implicit or reflexive memory

involves the development of skills or procedures

Riding a bike, playing piano

Stored in cerebellum and premotor area

114
Q

Not tested on

Limbic system

A

includes olfactory cortex, deep cortical regions and various nuclei

Influences emotions, visceral response to emotions, motivation, mood, long term declarative memory and sensation of pain and pleasure

Associated with reproduction and acquisition of food and water

115
Q

List the types of somatic and visceral sensory receptors, where they are located and how they function

A
  • *Somatic
  • *Located in skin, muscles and joints***
  • Mechanoreceptor* - Physical (Compression/touch/hearing/balance)
  • Thermorecptor* - Temp change
  • Nociceptor* - Pain (Extreme Chemical, thermal, mechanical)
  • *Visceral
  • *Located in internal organs***
  • Nocieptor*- - Pain (Extreme Chemical, thermal, mechanical)
  • Mechanorecptor*- - Physical (Compression/touch/hearing/balance)
116
Q

List the steps in the process of a sensation

A
  1. Stimulus is detected and converted into an action potential
  2. Ap -> CNS -> Cerebral cortex
  3. Translated so we are consciously aware of stimulis/sensation
117
Q

Differentiate between primary and secondary receptors

A

Primary receptor is the one sending the action potential that is monitoring the stimulus

Secondary receptor is when the Specialized cell is separate from the sensory neuron. Specialized cell releases neurotransmitters to activate sensory neuron

*Each neuron can only detect one type of stimulus

118
Q

What is the 3-neuron pathway?

A
119
Q

What are the 3 sensory tracts that involve conscious perception of external stimuli?

A

Spinothalamic tract
Dorsal-column/medial lemniscal
Trigeminothalamic

120
Q

What is the sensory tract responsible for unconscious external stimuli?

A

Spinocerebellar

121
Q

Recall the homunculus. Which areas have the most and least dedicated space and why?

A

Most - face, forearm, genitals, leg
Least - trunk, neck, shoulder, elbow

depends on what you use the most to feel things with

122
Q

Language and possibly artistic functions are not shared equally. What sides of the brain have more?

A

Left: Math and speech
Right: 3D or spatial perception, recognition of face, musical ability

123
Q

Where is speech normally functioning in the brain?

A

Normally in left cerebral cortex

124
Q

What is wernickes area?

A

Understanding what is heard and thinking of what you will say

125
Q

What is Brocas area

A

Sending messages to appropriate muscles to actually make sounds

126
Q

Aphasia

A

Absent or defective speech or language comprehension.

Caused by a lesion somewhere in the auditory/speech pathway

127
Q

What are the 3 steps in order to decide to control skeletal muscles?

A
  1. Decide you want to move with prefrontal cortex
  2. Initiate movement first in premotor area - send a signal to upper motor neurons
  3. to send a signal down to activate the lower motor neuron which goes out to skeletal muscles to cause them to contract

Cerebral cortex also interacts with basal nuclei and cerebellum in planning, coordination and execution of movements

128
Q

Precentral gyrus is also called______
and is responsible for?

A

Primary motor cortex, primary motor area

Control many voluntary movements especially fine motor movements of hands

129
Q

What are the 2 direct pathways for motor?

A

Corticospinal tract
Corticobulbar tract

130
Q

What is the pathways for the Lateral corticospinal tract & what does it control?

A

(Controls distal parts of limbs)

  1. Starts in Cortex and descends down to medulla where it decussates in the pyramid descends down lateral corticospinal tract
  2. Synapses with lower motor neuron which goes out anterior root to skeletal muscle
131
Q

What is the pathways for the Anterior corticospinal tract & what does it control?

A

(Controls proximal part of the limb)

  1. Starts in cortex and descends
  2. Dessucates in spinal cord and synapses with lower motor neuron
  3. Exits anterior root to skeletal muscle
132
Q

What are the funcitons of brainstem?

A
  1. All ascending and descending pathways pass through
  2. Nuclei of cranial nerves II-XII located
  3. Many reflexes important to survival located: Heart rate, bp, respiration, sleep, swallowing, vomit, cough, sneezing
  4. RAS - controls sleep/wake cycle
133
Q

What is a electroencephalogram (EEG)?

A

Record of brains elecrical activity. Summation of all action potentials occuring at a particular moment, sensed by electrodes placed on the scalp

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