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Biology > Inheritance I > Flashcards

Inheritance I Flashcards

1
Q

chromosomes

A

a thread-like structure made of DNA

found in the nucleus

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2
Q

what holds two chromosomes together (sister chromatids/duplicated chromosome)

A

a centomere

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3
Q

which chromosomes are X and Y

A

sex chromosomes

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4
Q

each … chromosome consists of two identical chromosomes called …

they are held together by the …

A

each duplicated chromosome consists of two identical chromosomes called chromatids

they are held together by the centomere

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5
Q

human cells contain … chromosomes, which form … …

one pair are the two … chromosomes, … and …

male cells contain one … and one … chromosome

female cells contain … … chromosomes

of the … chromosome, … (one of each …) are inherited from your … and … from your …

A

human cells contain 46 chromosomes, which form 23 pairs

one pair are the two sex chromosomes, **x **and y

male cells contain one **x **and one y chromosome

female cells contain two x chromosomes

of the 46 chromosomes, 23 (one of each pair) are inherited from your mother and 23 from your father

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6
Q

DNA

A

a large molecule that contains genetic information

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7
Q

what structure does DNA form?

A

double helix structure

made up of two strands

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8
Q

what is the backbone of DNA made up of?

A

alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate

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9
Q

nucleotide

A

unit of phosphate, sugar and base

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10
Q

what are the base pairings of DNA?

A

A (adenine) with T (thymine)

G (guanine) with C (cytosine)

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11
Q

what are the centre bases of DNA attached to?

A

sugar

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12
Q

the … structure of DNA is like a twisted …

DNA consists of … strands of … linked together

each nucleotide consists of a …, a … (called deoxyribose) and a …

the alternating … and … form the … of each nucleotide strand

the … are in the … of the helix

there are … bases in DNA: … , … , … and …

the bases of one nucleotide strand pair with the bases of the other strand

… always pairs with …

… always pairs with …

A

the double-helix structure of DNA is like a twisted ladder

DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides linked together

each nucleotide consists of a phosphate, a sugar (called deoxyribose) and a base

the alternating phosphate and sugar form the backbone of each nucleotide strand

the bases are in the **centre **of the helix

there are 4 bases in DNA: A , C , G and T

the bases of one nucleotide strand pair with the bases of the other strand

A always pairs with T

C always pairs with G

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13
Q

genes

A

a small section of DNA/ of a chromosome that contains information for making protein

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14
Q

what is the genetic code made of

A

3 bases

code (=contain the information) for one amino acis

protein - chain of amino acids

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15
Q

genes form … which make …

A

genes form protein which make characteristics

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16
Q

genetic code

A

the rules (code) by which the information encoded in DNA sequence is translates into amino acid sequence

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17
Q

each chromosome contains thousands of …

a … is a segment of … that contains the … for making …, which are chains of , …

the information for making a particular protein is containes with the …(=order) of the DNA …

the sequence of … bases codes for … amino acid

proteins are responsible for certain … such as eye colour

A

each chromosome contains thousands of genes

a gene is a segment of DNA that contains the information for making protein, which are chains of amino acids

the information for making a particular protein is containes with the **sequence **(=order) of the DNA bases

the sequence of 3 bases codes for 1 amino acid

proteins are responsible for certain characteristics such as eye colour

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18
Q

how do you carry out the experiment for DNA extraction

A
  1. mix 10cm3 washing up liquid and 3g falt and add this to shome chopped kiwi or onion
  2. place in water bath at 60oC for 15 minutes
  3. cool he mixture by standing it into a jug of ice water and stir with a glass rod
  4. filter the mixture through the funnel into a new beaker
  5. transfer filtrate into a test tube
  6. trickle some ice-cold ethanol very slowly down the side of the test tube
  7. leave it to stand for 3 minutes
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19
Q

how is DNA replicated?

A

step 1: the DNA double hleix gets unwound and the 2 strands seperate

step 2: new DNA strands are made by connecting free nucleotides together using the old strand as a template

step 3: the newly formed DNA double helix strands rewind into a helix agian

result of DNA replication: the newly formed DNA molecules contain one strand of the original DNAand one new strand. this is called semi-conservative replication

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20
Q

what do mistakes in copying DNA cause?

A

mutations

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21
Q

what is the result of mitosis?

A

mitosis leads to the production of two genetically identicaly cells (clones)

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22
Q

what is the pupose of mitosis?

A

to make more cells (during growth)

to replace dead ones (repair)

asexual reprocuction

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23
Q

where does mitosis take place?

A

in all body cells (except sex cells)

in bacteria and other microorganisms

in plants

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24
Q

what is the difference between parents needed in asexual and sexual reproduction?

A

asexual = 1 parent needed

sexual = 2 parents needed

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25
Q

what is the difference between genetic makeup in asexual and sexual reproduction?

A

asexual = offspring identical to each other and to parents

sexual = offspring are non-identical to each other and parents

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26
Q

what are the advantages of asexual reproduction?

A

faster

requires less energy

no partner needed

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27
Q

what are the advantgaes of sexual reproduction?

A

produces variety

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28
Q

what are some examples of asexual reproduction?

A

in bacteria, protoctista, fungi, plants, some animals

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29
Q

what are some examples of sexual reproduction?

A

in fungi, plants and animals

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30
Q

describe the asexual reproduction of runners (plants)

give examples

A

overground arial stems which grow roots and develop into new plants

e.g. spider plants, strawberries

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31
Q

describe the asexual repodcution of rhizomes

give examples

A

underground stems which grow through the soil, and will periodically produce new roots and new above ground shoots

e.g. grass

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32
Q

describe the asexual repodcution of tuber

give examples

A

underground swollen stem from which new plants may grow

e.g. potatoes

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33
Q

describe the asexual repodcution of bulbs

give examples

A

short stems with fleshy leaves

e.g. onions, daffodil

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34
Q

how does asexual reproduction in plants develop?

A

new plants can develop from the parent plant from the stems, roots or leaves

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35
Q

what are two methods of cloning plants?

A

cuttings

micropropagation

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36
Q

describe the method of cutting to clone plants

A

remove a small part (stem or leaf) of the parent plant (=cutting)

plant cutting into soil; it will then grow into a new plant

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37
Q

describe the method of micropropagation of cloning plants

A

take a few cells/ or a very small part from the plant (=explants)

put them into culture medium (with nutrients and growth hormones)

grow into callus and from that into a new plant

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38
Q

label this diagram of micropropagation

A
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39
Q

why does cloning of plants work?

A

plants contain many meristem cells, which continuosly divide by mitosis

meristem cells are totipotent and can differentiate into all kinds of other plant tissues

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40
Q

why clone plants?

A

to produce genetically identical copies of a plant with desirbale characteristsics

to quickly produce manture plants

to produce plants in the absence of pollinators

to conserve rare or endagered plants

to make copies of plants that have been genetically modified

to produce plants that do not grow easily from seeds (e.g. orchids)

to produce plants at any time in the year (especially with micropropagation)

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41
Q

how do you clone cauliflower?

A

collect a small ‘mini-flore’ of cauliflower and place into a tile

place your forceps into the pot of sterilising solution

using a scalpel carefully cut the mini-floret lengthways into small pieces - these are your explants(the explants should be about 5-7 mm long)

usuing your sterilised forceps pick up your explants and place them into the sterilising solution in the screw top vial, replace the lid

put the forceps back into the sterilising solution

gently swirl/shale the vial for about 5 seconds, every 2 minutes; repeat this until 15 mins has passed

using the sterilised forceps carefully drain the vial of sterilising solution into the waste beaker, be careful not to lose your explants

take off the lid from your agar and place the lif facing downwards onto your clean white tile

pick up an explant usuing the sterilised forceps and transfer it to an agar pot, pressing the stalk end slightly into the medium

put on the lid and label tour agar pot with your name and the date

incubate the agar piot under a light bank

examine the culture weekly

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42
Q

what is a clone

A

a genetically identical organism

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43
Q

what is an example of natural clones?

A

twins

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44
Q

what is natural embryo twinning?

A

carried out in he mother

embryo splits in two

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45
Q

what is artificial embryo twinning?

A

carried out in a petri dish

embryo is seperated into individual cells

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46
Q

what is a somatic cell?

A

a cell in the body which isn’t sperm or egg (the reproductive cells)

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47
Q

what happens in somatic cell nuclear transfer?

A

the nucleus and all the DNA is taken out of a somatic cell

the chromosomes are taken out of the egg cell

the nucleus and DNA from the somatic cell is transferred into the enucleated egg

it now develops into an embryo and is implanted into the mother

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48
Q

complete this somatic cell nuclear transfer diagram

A
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49
Q

in normal sexual reprodcution, where do the chromosomes of the zygot come from?

A

the sperm and the egg

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50
Q

in somatic cell nuclear transfer, where do the chromosomes come from?

A

the somatic cell nucleus

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51
Q

complete this animal cloning diagram

A
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52
Q

what gender will the baby mouse be?

A

female

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53
Q

suggest why mice with different coat colours are used in this experiment

A

to visually be able to see what happened and what genetic information is carried in the nucleus

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54
Q

what is the role of a surrogate mother

A

to carry offspring

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55
Q

explain medical reasons for cloning animals

A

understanding human disease by studying animal models

cloning reduced time needed to make transgenic (genetically modified) animal models needed to study

to understand stem cell cloning which can result in growing whole organs

to understand disease and develop treatment

56
Q

explain non-medical reasons for cloning animals

A

reviving endangered or extinct species (you would only need well-preserved DNA and DNA from a closely related species)

reproducing a dead pet (it would look identical but traits and persoanlity would be affected by environment)

cloning livestock which prodcue efficient and desirable products

for breeding reasons and useful drug medicines

57
Q

cloning animals could lead to human cloning

why are some people opposed this?

A

the process and result is viewed as immoral

is very dangerous with technical difficulties to overcome

high mortality rates are predicted

some would expect individuals to be the same (they wouldn’t due to characteristics being affected by environmet)

58
Q

what are risks of cloning

A

high failure rate, 0.1-3% success rate with development problems and imlantation problems to overcome

problems during later development; organs are of abnormal size which leads to numerous problems like breathing and blood flow

abnormal gene patterns

telomeric differences meaning cells grow faster so one ages quicker

59
Q

are clones cloned at the same age?

A

no

60
Q

do clones have the same traits and personalities?

A

no

they depend on your environment

61
Q

is cloning only artificial

A

no

asexual reproduction

twins

62
Q

who is Dolly the Sheep

A

first mammal created by somatic cell nuclear transfer by Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell

63
Q

what are some argument for cloning animals

A

to clone genetically engineered animals (e.g. to produce useful proteins such as antibodies)

to use as organ donors

to use in medical trials

to save animals from extinction

to bring back animals to life that have died years ago

64
Q

what are some arguments against animal cloning

A

not very reliable technique: can produce abnormal animals

could lead to cloning of humans

cloning reduces variety

65
Q

complete this diagram on embryo splitting (twinning)

A
66
Q

complete this diagram on reproductive cloning (dolly the sheep)

A
67
Q

how are proteins produced

A

by living cells

68
Q

all living organisms contain … in their cells

A

DNA

69
Q

what is genetic engineering?

A

the process of changing the DNA in an organism

(e.g. by adding genes from another organism)

70
Q

what is the name of the cell (or organism) containing foreign DNA?

A

transgenic cell

71
Q

what is the name of a cell (or organism) containing artifically engineered DNA?

A

recombinant DNA

72
Q

where is insulin made?

A

in the pancreas of humans

73
Q

what can restriction enzymes be used as?

A

they act lke a pair of scissors

can cut DNA at specific sites (by recognising a certain base sequence)

different restriction enxymes cut DNA at different places

74
Q

why are restriction enxymes useful?

A

they can cut and replace DNA

75
Q

why is a plasmid useful for gentic engineering?

A

they assist in the production of insulin which can be transferred into bacteria

76
Q

why are bacteria good organisms for the production of insulin?

A

bacteria reproduce asexally

clones containing DNA plasmid with the insulin gene can be made on a large scale, produced cheap and easily

bacteria produces lots of insulin proteins by usuing genetic information from the insulin gene which can be then extracted and purified

77
Q

list three applications of genetic engineering other than insulin production

A

plants, crops, animals to grow desirably and faster

eliminating DNA protein which causes allergic reaction

genetic engineeing of humans with healthy DNA

78
Q

how does genetic engineering affect agriculture

A

large number of insects die due to pesticide producing crops = big impact pn biodiversity and ecosystem

affects farmers from poorer countries will have to constantly buy new seeds

GM food consumprion might affect human health negatively

79
Q

explain how genetically engineered insulin is produced

A

step 1: human cells contain a gene for making insulin

step 2: DNA is extracted from human cells

step 3: the insulin gene is cut out from DNA using a restriction enzyme

step 4: bacteria cells contain short circular pieces of DNA called plasmids

step 5: the plasmid is extracted and cut out using the same restriction enzyme

step 6: the enzyme DNA ligase is used to join the ends of the insulin genes and the plasmid DNA to create recombinant DNA

step 7: the plasmid holding the insulin gene functions as a vector and is used to transfer the insulin gene into bacteria

step 8 and 9: the transgenic bacteria reproduce and start making insulin protein. this insulin protein can be isolated and purified

80
Q

what is step 1 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

human cells contain a gene for making insulin

81
Q

what is step 2 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

DNA is extracted from human cells

82
Q

what is step 3 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

the insulin gene is cut out from DNA using a restriction enzyme

83
Q

what is step 4 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

bacteria cells contain short circular pieces of DNA called plasmids

84
Q

what is step 5 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

the plasmid is extracted and cut out using the same restriction enzyme (from step 3)

85
Q

what is step 6 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

the enzyme DNA ligase is used to join the ends of the insulin genes and the plasmid DNA to create recombinant DNA

86
Q

what is step 7 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

the plasmid holding the insulin gene functions as a vector and is used to transfer the insulin gene into bacteria

87
Q

what is step 8 and 9 on how genetically engineered insulin is produced?

A

step 8 and 9: the transgenic bacteria reproduce and start making insulin protein. this insulin protein can be isolated and purified

88
Q

recall the flow diagram for how genetically engineered insulin is produced

A
89
Q

plasmid

A

short circular peive of DNA found in bacterial cells

90
Q

restriction enzyme

A

enzyme that cuts DNA molecules at specific points

91
Q

DNA ligase

A

enzme that joins cut ends of DNA molecules

92
Q

recombinant DNA

A

DNA that has been created from different sources

93
Q

vector

A

the means of transferring DNA into an organism

(e.g. a plasmid or a virus)

94
Q

transgenic organism

A

an organism whose DNA has been genetically altered

95
Q

what two different types of vectors are there?

A

plasmid

virus

96
Q

label this genetically modifiying plants diagram

A
97
Q

how do you genetically modify plants

A
  1. the desired gene is inerted into the plasmid
  2. the plasmid is introduced into cells cultured in a labatory
  3. the plant cells develop into full-grown plants
98
Q

what are some uses of genetically modified plants

A

resistance to herbicides and pesticides

resistance to plant disease

drought and heat tolerance

better balance of nutrients or additional nutrients to improve food production

extended shelf-life of fruit and vegetables

production of biodegradable

99
Q

how is genetic engineering used in gene therapy?

A

therapeutic gene is packaged into a delivery vehicule such as a retrovirus and injected into the patient to target the specific organ (e.g. liver)

100
Q

stem cells

A

unspecialised cells that can replicate themselves or differentiate into other cell types

101
Q

what are totipotent stem cells

A

cells that can develop into any cell type

102
Q

what are pluripotent stem cells

A

cells that can develop into most cells

103
Q

what are multipotent stem cells?

A

cells that can develop into some cell types

104
Q

what are unipotent stem cells?

A

cells that can develop into one cell type

105
Q

say which stage belongs to which type of stem cell (e.g. totipotent)

day 1: zygote

day 2: 2-cell stage

day 3: 4-cell stage

day 4: 8-cell stage

day 5: morula

1 week: blastula (embryonic stem cells)

birth: fetus, baby (umbilical cord stem cells), adult (adult stem cells)

A

totipotent stem cells (can form every cell:

day 1: zygote

day 2: 2-cell stage

day 3: 4-cell stage

day 4: 8-cell stage

day 5: morula

pluripotent stem cells (can form every cell except the placenta)

1 week: blastula (embryonic stem cells)

multipotent stem cells (can form only the cells that they are in):

birth: fetus, baby (umbilical cord stem cells), adult (adult stem cells)

106
Q

complete this diagram to show how pluripotent stem cells differentiate

A
107
Q

complete this diagram to show how multipotet stem cells differentiate

A
108
Q

what are the advantages of pluripotent stem cells (embryonic stem cells)?

A

help treat disease - embryonic stem cells have the potential to become any cell

can easily make more by mitosis so large numbers can be obtained

pluripotent (able to form most types of cells)

109
Q

what are the disadvantages of pluripotent stem cells (embryonic stem cells)

A

don’t have same genes - patient’s body may reject them

need drugs to supress immune system when transplanting embryonic stem cells (see above)

embryo is destroyed when isolating human embryonic stem cells - ethical and legal problems

110
Q

what are the advantages of multipotent stem cells (umbilical cord stem cells, adult stem cells)

A

use of patient’s own cell is possible - no immune system rejection

important for growth, healing and replacing cells that are lost

stem cells from blood and bone marrow used as a treatment for blood-related diseases

can transplant somatic stem cells into patient without harm

111
Q

what are the disadvantages of multipotent stem cells (umbilical cord stem cells, adult stem cells)

A

multipotent (only form some types of cells) partial differentiation is a disadvantage when producing an unrelated cell type

isolation of somatic stem cells and other types could cause tissue or organ damage

needs drugs to supress immune system when transplating somatic stem cells into a patient

omly small numbers can be found in the body

112
Q

what can embryonic stem cells differentiate into?

A

heart

kidney

spinal cord

insulin producing cells

113
Q

what is the potential of therapeutic stem cells?

A

can, in theory, generate embryonic stem cells with the potential to become any type of cell in the body

no danger of immune system rejection as cells are patient’s own

114
Q

what are the disadvantages of therapeutic stem cells?

A

therapeutic cloning remains is time consuming, ineficient and expenisve

115
Q

what are the ethical considerations of therapeutic cloning?

A

involves the vcloning of a human being

destroying a cloned embryo

requires a human egg donor

116
Q

what is the potential as therapy for STAP cells? (under investigation; may or may not be real)

A

enormous potential

can become any type of cell in the body

no danger of immune system rejection as they can be made of the patient’s own cells

no genetic modifications, should be safer than iPS cells

117
Q

what are the special considerations of STAP cells? (under investigation; may or may not be real)

A

they are new so will take time to wok out reatment methods and show them to be safe and effective

their promise to be low-fuss, low-cost source of patient-specific stem cells could revoluntionalisethe field

118
Q

what are the ethical considerations of STAP cells? (under investigation; may or may not be real)

A

subject to the same ethical considerations that apply to all medical procedures

119
Q

what are STAP cells?

A

stimulus-triggered qcquisition of pluripotency

created artifically in the lab by stressing somatic cells

can become any type of cell not only in the embryo but also in the placenta

120
Q

what are iPS cells?

A

induced pluripotent stem cells

created artificially in the lab

can be made from readily available cells including fat, skin and fibroblasts (cells that produce connective tissue)

121
Q

what are the potential as therapy of iPS cells?

A

can become any cell in the body, or whole body

promising for treating diseases

no danger of immune system rejection as cells are made from patient’s own cells

122
Q

what are the special considerations of iPS cells?

A

less expensive than embryonic stem cells

safety of patient is uncertain

123
Q

what are the ethical considerations of iPS cells?

A

subject to the same ethical considerations that apply to all medical procedures

124
Q

if a DNA double heilx has 30% A bases, what is the content of C base?

A

20%

125
Q

genetic information is stored in structures called … which are found in the … of cells and are made of … . they contain thousands of … each of which is repsonsible for making …

the genetic code from the mother is passed through cells called … which are made in the …, while the genetic information from the father is passed on through … made in the …

in … reproduction, the offspring produces are genetically … from their parents. this leads to … within species

in … reproduction, the offspring are produced through a process called … and are genetically … to each other

A

genetic information is stored in structures called **chromosomes **which are found in the nucleus of cells and are made of DNA they contain thousands of genes each of which is repsonsible for making protein

the genetic code from the mother is passed through cells called egg cells which are made in the ovaries, while the genetic information from the father is passed on through sperm cells made in the testes

in sexual reproduction, the offspring produces are genetically **different **from their parents. this leads to **variation **within species

in asexual reproduction, the offspring are produced through a process called mitosis and are genetically identical to each other

126
Q

how many pairs of chromosomes are there in a body cell of a human baby?

A

23

127
Q

describe what happens to chromosomes when a normal body cell divides

A

DNA duplicates itsefl

chromosomes split into two new daughter cells

128
Q

name A-G

A

A = duplicated chromosome

B = centomere

C = sister chromatid

D = deoxyribose

E = phosphate

F = base pair

G = base

129
Q

put the followng steps of mitosis in the correct order

A

A, C, B, F, G, E, D

130
Q

name A - G

A

A = interphase

B = prometaphase

C = prophase

D = cytokinesis

E = telophase

F = metaphase

G = anaphase

131
Q

what determines the order of amino acids?

A

the order of the bases

132
Q

small peices called … are taken from the parent plant

these are dipped into dilute bleach to sterilise their surfaces

they are then grown by placing them into a test tube containing … and … in conditions that are free from pathogens

each peice of the plant develops into a bal of cells called a callus, which then grows shoots and roots

in this way large … of plants can be produced that are … identical to each other

A

small peices called explants are taken from the parent plant

these are dipped into dilute bleach to sterilise their surfaces

they are then grown by placing them into a test tube containing nutrients and growth hormones in conditions that are free from pathogens

each peice of the plant develops into a bal of cells called a callus, which then grows shoots and roots

in this way large numbers of plants can be produced that are genetically identical to each other

133
Q

name one disadvantage of producing plants by clonign rather than from seeds

A

if a plant is susceptable to disease then they all are

134
Q

Snuppy was the first dog to produced by cloning

he was cloned using cells from the skin of his father

describe the process by which Snuppy was clones

A

a somatic cell was taken from his father and an enucleated egg cell was taken from another dog

the cell nucleus and the enucleates cell were fused together by a mid electric shock

after being placed in a petrei dish, it can grow into an embryo

the embryo can be placed into a surrogate mother

135
Q

Snuppy was the first dog to produced by cloning

he was cloned using cells from the skin of his father

explain why Snuppy is identical to his father

A

the DNA comes from the father because the nucleus came from the somatic cell which came from yhe father

the nucleus contains the genetic infromation which was replicated by mitosis

136
Q

human DNA contains the gene to make insulin

bacteria can be modified to contain this gene and produce insulin

describe the steps to do this

A

(must mention)

restriction enzyme

cut out gene/DNA

ligase

recombinant DNA

plasmid functions as vector

into bacteria

grow bacteria/obtain insulin

Biology (24 decks)

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