1
Q
memory
A
the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information
2
Q
2 components important to memory
A
structures and processes
3
Q
3 reasons why memory is important
A
- it is connected to learning
- it helps us operate in the present
- it is the basis of some mental illnesses
4
Q
learning
A
a change in the nervous system, retaining a past experience
5
Q
4 methods of studying memory
A
- recognition tests
- recall tests
- lab approach
- ecological approach
6
Q
recognition tests
A
here is an answer, have you seen it before (multiple choice)
7
Q
recall tests
A
here is a question, supply an answer
8
Q
2 types of recall tests
A
- free recall
2. cued recall
9
Q
free recall
A
no help give at all
10
Q
cued recall
A
retrieval cue (hint) is given
11
Q
example of cued recall test
A
paired association test
12
Q
paired association test
A
2 words are given
- when it is time to remember, the first word is given and you must remember the second
13
Q
lab approach
A
focus on control and internal validity
14
Q
who studied memory in a lab
A
Ebbinghaus
15
Q
Ebbinghaus experiment
A
studied memory using nonsense syllables
16
Q
criticism of the lab approach
A
artificial due to being isolated to a lab
17
Q
ecological approach
A
focus on functions in real life and external validity
18
Q
external validity
A
how people actually use memory in reality
19
Q
2 examples of ecological experiments of memory
A
- clock checking
2. Bahrick and school learning
20
Q
clock checking experiment
A
observe how often kids check a clock when waiting to take something out of the oven
21
Q
Bahrick and school learning
A
tested Spanish knowledge fresh out of high school vs 50 years old
22
Q
Bahrick results
A
after 6 years, language dropped dramatically
- after this period language loss plateaued for 20 years
- after 26 years, language declined again
23
Q
2 methods of rehearsal
A
- maintenance
2. elaborative
24
Q
maintenance rehearsal
A
repeating something over and over
25
is maintenance rehearsal effective
no
26
elaborative rehearsal
thinking about information and adding context, looking for connections
27
5 elaborative techniques
1. visual images
2. self-reference
3. generating information
4. organize information
5. survival value
28
why are visual images an effective memory tool
we can remember visual stimuli better than verbal stimuli
29
self-reference
relating info to yourself
30
generating information
saying something out loud is better than silently
31
production effect
saying something out loud is better for memory
32
what part of the brain is related to survival value
the amygdala sounds an alarm when faced with threats
33
retrieval practice
the act of repeating something helps increase memory of it
34
3 types of memory storage
1. sensory memory
2. working memory
3. long-term memory
35
retrieval cue
the right retrieval cue will automatically retrieve information from the long-term memory
36
2 types of retrieval cues
intentional or unintentional
37
how are encoding and retrieval cues related?
when we try to remember something, we encode all related info as a retrieval cue
38
state dependent memory
if encoding occurs in one mood, retrieval will occur more easily in the same mood
39
how is state dependent memory related to depression
depressed people retrieve negative memories more easily
40
transfer-appropriate processing
what/how you are working on something can help encoding
41
example of transfer-appropriate processing
2 groups, 1 rhyming words, 1 finding meaning
| - if given a recognition task, the meaning group did better
42
who created the modal model? when?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
43
2 components of Atkinson and Shiffrin model
1. structural features
| 2. control processes
44
control processes
things you can do to memories (eg: rehearsal)
45
structural features
boxes representing memories
46
sensory memory
encoding, storage, retrieval of sensory information
47
example of sensory memory
persistence of vision
48
who studied sensory memory? when?
Sperling (1960)
49
Sperling experiment
gave people an array of 12 letters for 50 ms and they reported what they saw
50
Sperling results
people reported 33% of letters
| - said they initially saw more but forgot as they read the first letters
51
Sperling partial report method
same array but an arrow indicated which letters to report, after the letters were shown
52
partial report method results
people could recall 3/4 letters regardless of row
| - showed they knew 75% of all the array
53
delayed partial report method
arrow was delayed by 1 second
54
delayed partial report method results
people only recalled 1/4 letters per row
55
long-term memory
any information stored for longer than 20 seconds
56
durational limits of long-term memory
only limit in duration is the human life span
57
capacity limits of long-term memory
will never be full and learning can always continue
58
evidence that short-term and long-term memories are different (3 things)
1. serial position curve
2. brain activity
3. double dissociations
59
serial position curve
given list of words and memory of words is graphed
60
recency effect
most likely to remember words at the end of the list
61
primacy effect
2nd most likely to remember words at the beginning of the list
62
double dissociation showing long-term vs short-term
brain damage in HM vs KF
63
HM
had anterograde amnesia due to the lack of a hippocampi (shitty long-term memory)
64
KF
had poor short term memory due to a damaged parietal cortex
65
consolidation
process of transforming fragile memories into more permanent memories
66
who discovered consolidation? when?
Muller and Pilzecker (1900)
67
Muller and Pilzecker experiment
gave 2 groups, 2 lists of nonsense syllables
- group 1 learned the lists back to back
- group 2 learned the lists with a break in between
68
Muller and Pilzecker results
group 2 performed better
| - memories need time to solidify in the brain
69
synaptic consolidation
consolidation at the level of the synapse
70
who studied synaptic consolidation? when?
Hebb (1940s)
71
long-term potentiation
enhanced firing of neurons due to repeated stimulation simultaneously
72
systems consolidation
consolidation at the level of the brain, can take months or years
73
standard model
when you remember something there are multiple brain areas involved
- hippocampus coordinates simultaneous activation of these areas
74
when does systems consolidation occur
when multiple brain areas are re-activated together
75
multiple trace model
hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of episodic memories only
76
reconsolidation
process in which retrieving a memory makes it fragile again
77
who studied reconsolidation? when?
Nadar (2000)
78
Nadar experiment
classical conditioning causing rats to freeze
79
psychological freezing
rats get scared and stop moving due to classical conditioning
80
3 groups in Nadar's experiment
1. rats freeze and then a drug preventing protein synthesis blocks consolidation
2. rats freeze but the drug is injected a day later allowing consolidation
3. rats freeze but the next day re-activate the memory before the drug, due to reconsolidation
81
Tulving's taxonomy
categorizations of long-term memory created by Tulving
82
2 broad categories in Tulving's taxonomy
1. explicit memory
| 2. implicit memory
83
explicit memory
conscious recollection
84
implicit memory
unconscious recollection
85
types of explicit memory
1. episodic
| 2. semantic
86
episodic memory
memory of events
87
semantic memory
memory of general information
88
types of implicit memory
1. procedural
2. classical conditioning
3. priming
89
procedural memory
memory for an active cognition or skill
90
classical conditioning
change in behavior due to pairing of stimuli
91
priming
change in performance with a stimulus as a result of recent experiences
92
who studied priming? when?
Bargh, Chen and Burrows (1996)
93
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #1
people given 5 words, asked to make a sentence using 4
- 1/3 of the trials had "rude" words
- after trial had to talk to assistant who was mid conversation with someone else
94
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #1 results
people primed with rude words interrupt 70% of the time
| - people primed with polite words interrupt 17% of the time
95
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #2
same manipulation as experiment #1
| - except words were associated with old age
96
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #2 results
people primed with old age words walked slower to the elevator on average
97
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #3
subliminally flash faces on the screen (either white or black)
- the computer crashes
98
Bargh, Chen and Burrows experiment #3 results
people who saw African-American faces were more hostile, regardless of the subject race, in response to the crash
99
theory of long-term memory different from Tulving's
levels of processing theory
100
levels of processing
memory depends on depth of processing, not on its location
101
example of levels of processing
a list of unrelated items is difficult to remember in comparison with a list of associated items
102
in levels of processing is there a distinction between long and short-term memory?
no, memory is only about depth
103
who studied levels of processing? when?
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
104
Craik and Lockhart experiment
3 different words tasks:
1. is the words upper or lower case
2. does the word rhyme with something
3. does the word complete a sentence
- then tested for memory of these words
105
Craik and Lockhart results
memory was better with deeper processing (latency and recognition increased)
106
depth of processing in maintenance vs elaborative rehearsal
```
maintenance = shallow
elaborative = deep
```
107
who studied a real life example of levels of processing? when?
Stein (1982)
108
Stein's study
students asked to complete a sentence
| - academically successful students completed the sentences with phrases related to the beginning of the sentence
109
3 ways to use levels of processing
1. put info in your own words
2. method of loci
3. imagery
110
pros of levels of processing theory
1. showed memory is an active process
| 2. gives us learning tips based on the depth effect
111
cons of levels of processing theory
1. quantifying depth of meaning is difficult
| 2. effort is a confounding variable
112
autobiographical memory
memory for events of one's life
113
what does autobiographical memory contain?
episodic and semantic memories
114
how is autobiographical memory multidimensional?
is contains emotions and sensory information
115
3 main things in autobiographical memory
1. personal milestones
2. transitional points
3. emotional events
116
memory bump is also known as a ...
reminiscence bump
117
memory bump
people remember a large number of events between the ages of 10 and 30
118
what causes the memory bump (3 things)
1. this is when identity is formed
2. life script
3. distinctiveness
119
life script
schema of what you believe life should be like
120
when do a lot of life script events occur?
between the ages of 10 and 30
121
distinctiveness
unique events that stick in our memory
122
functions of autobiographical memory
helps us solve problems and create social bonds
123
flashbulb memory
vivid and detailed memory of a personally significant event
124
who coined flashbulb memory? when?
Brown and Kulik (1977)
125
what does flashbulb memory describe
the circumstances surrounding an event rather than the event itself
126
example of flashbulb memory being studied
repeated recall immediately after 9/11 and years after 9/11
127
are flashbulb memories accurate?
not necessarily, but people are more confident in them
128
what is the constructive nature of memory
memories are constructed from what actually happened plus other variables we make up
129
2009 memory survey results
47% of people believe memories don't change
| 63% of people believe memories work like a recording
130
who studied constructive nature of memory? when?
Bartlett (1932)
131
Bartlett experiment
gave white people a native story to read with method of repeated production
- each time they read the story they left out details and added new ones
132
reason people failed at the native story
it didn't fit with the Western schema
133
source monitoring
determining the source of a memory
134
source monitoring error
when you get the source of a memory confused
135
cryptoamnesia
unconscious plagiarism
136
role of familiarity in source monitoring
the more familiar something is, the more likely you are to make a source monitoring error
137
gender role in source monitoring
people make source monitoring errors consistent with typical gender roles
138
misinformation effect
presenting contrary information about an event can effect a memory
139
2 causes of misinformation effect
1. retroactive interference
| 2. source monitoring error
140
effect of a picture on the misinformation effect
doubles the size of this effect
141
who studied the misinformation effect
Loftus
142
Loftus experiment
asked people about a car accident using different verbs to describe the accident
- asked people how fast the cars were moving
143
short term memory
storage device that keeps information for a brief period of time
144
who investigated the duration of short term memory? when?
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
145
Peterson and Peterson experiment
tested memory without rehearsal, gave a distraction to prevent rehearsal
146
Peterson and Peterson results
without rehearsal:
- 50% memory after 6 seconds
- 10% memory after 18 seconds
147
who replaced time with interference in short-term memory? when?
Kepel and Underwood (1962)
148
Kepel and Underwood theory
deterioration of short-term memory is due to interference, not time
149
who investigated capacity of working memory?
1. Miller
2. Luck and Vogel
3. Alvarez and Cavagth
150
Miller's theory
we can hold 7 plus or minus 2 pieces of information in working memory
151
if 7+-2 theory exists, how do people increase digit spans
with chunking
152
how is Miller's theory related to chess
expert chess players remember locations of pieces better than novices
- only if this is in a real game
- if pieces are random, experts can't chunk
153
Luck and Vogel theory
4 plus or minus 1 bits of information in visual working memory
154
Luck and Vogel experiment
detect changes between arrays of colored squares on a computer screen
155
Alvarez and Cavagth experiment
repeated Luck and Vogel's experiment but varied square complexity
156
Alvarez and Cavagth results
complexity makes a big difference
157
functions of working memory (4 things)
1. rehearse
2. elaborate
3. search
4. compare
158
difference between short term and working memory
working memory is more dynamic and active
159
who created a model of working memory? (2 people) and when?
1. Baddeley and Hitch (1974)
| 2. Baddeley (2000)
160
3 structures of Baddeley and Hitch model
1. visuospatial sketch pad
2. central executive
3. phonological loop
161
central executive
information must move through this when moving between the other 2 structures
162
2 functions of phonological loop
1. stores sounds
| 2. articulatory rehearsal
163
articulatory rehearsal
saying something in your head
164
word length effect
shorter words are easier to remember
165
phonological similarity effect
people confuse letters that sound alike
166
articulatory suppression
memory performance can be inhibited by speaking while trying to remember something
167
visuospatial sketchpad
contains visual and spatial information
168
visual information
visual memory and vision from senses
169
spatial information
planning your way through space
170
who investigated rotation in the visuospatial sketchpad
Metzler and Shepard
171
Metzler and Shepard experiment
asked participants to identify if 2 objects could be rotated to be the same
172
Metzler and Shepard results
the more a shape had to be mentally rotated, the longer the response took
173
who investigated memory of matrices?
Della Sala
174
Della Sala results
people could remember 9 shaded squares before making mistakes
175
3 central executive functions
1. select
2. coordinate
3. integrate
176
how does the central executive select
schedules onset and offset of different tasks
177
how does the central executive coordinate
coordinates processes in the working memory
178
how does the central executive integrate
solves problems, comprehends, and searches
179
what part of the brain is associated with the central executive
frontal lobes
180
dysexecutive syndrome
associated with frontal lobe damage, inability to inhibit, delay responding, and solve problems
181
how is the current working memory model different
includes an episodic buffer
182
episodic buffer
binds information together in episodic chunks
183
significance of episodic buffer
may be where conscious awareness happens
184
is the episodic buffer testable
not really
185
3 functions of prefrontal cortex in working memory
1. neural mind reading and delayed responding
2. recording neurons in delayed response task
3. brain damage and delayed response task
186
neural mind reading
guessing what someone is thinking
187
recording neurons
certain prefrontal cortex neurons are active in the waiting period
188
which part of the brain maintains verbal information
left parietal lobe
189
which part of the brain is involved in subvocal rehearsal
left frontal lobe
190
which hemisphere is more related to spatial tasks
right
191
which hemisphere is more related to verbal tasks
left
Psychology 258
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