Week 6 Study Cards Flashcards
(229 cards)
1
Q
What are neural pathways in which reflexes occur over
A
reflex arcs
2
Q
what are reflexes?
A
rapid, predictable, involuntary motor responses to stimuli
3
Q
What are the two classification of reflexes?
A
autonomic and somatic
4
Q
What are autonomic reflexes?
A
are not subject to conscious control
5
Q
What are somatic reflexes?
A
all reflexes that stimulate skeletal muscle
6
Q
What do autonomic reflexes activate?
A
smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, and the glands of the body and they regulate body functions such as digestion and blood pressure
7
Q
What are the 5 parts of the reflex arc?
A
1) receptor
2) sensory neuron
3) integration center
4) motor neuron
5) effector
8
Q
What is the receptor?
A
reacts to a stimulus
9
Q
What is a sensory neuron
A
conducts the afferent impulses to the CNS
10
Q
What is the integration center?
A
consists of one or more synapses in the CNS
11
Q
What is the motor neuron?
A
conducts the efferent impulses from the integration center to an effector
12
Q
What is the effector?
A
muscle fibers or glands that respond to the efferent impulses by contracting or secreting a product, respectively
13
Q
What is monosynaptic?
A
one synapse reflex arc
14
Q
What is polysynaptic?
A
one or more association neuron in the reflex arc pathway
15
Q
What is synapse?
A
point of close contact between the neurons or a neuron and an effector cell
16
Q
What is stretch reflexes?
A
important postural reflexes that act to maintain posture, balance, and locomotion
17
Q
How are stretch reflexes produced?
A
by tapping a tendon which stretches the attached muscle
18
Q
What does the stretching of the tendon stimulate?
A
muscle spindles and causes reflex contraction of the stretched muscle to resist further stretching
19
Q
What is patellar reflex?
A
when knee ligament is tapped leg jerks forward
20
Q
What is the achilles reflex?
A
assesses the first two sacral segments of the spinal cord which causes foot to dorsiflex
21
Q
What is superficial cord reflexes?
A
abdominal and plantar reflexes
22
Q
what are superficial cord reflexes initiated by?
A
stimulation of receptors in the skin and mucosae
23
Q
What do the superficial cord reflexes depend upon?
A
both the brain participation and on the cord level reflex arc
24
Q
What is plantar reflex?
A
stimulating the cutaneous receptors in the sole of the foot that cause the toes to flex and move closer together
25
What is the corneal relex?
reflex mediated through the trigeminal nerve by touching the eye which causes them to blink
26
What is the pupillary light reflex?
pupil adjusts to light by dilating or constricting
27
What is consensual reflexes?
one sense on one side and it does it on the other
28
What is contralateral response?
when a reflex is observed on one side of the body when the other side was stimulated
29
What is ipsilateral response?
reflex only occurs on the side where stimulation occurs
30
What are special sense receptors?
large, complex sensory organs (eyes or ears) or localized clusters of receptors (taste buds and olfactory epithelium)
31
What is the diameter of the adult human eye?
2.5 cm (1 inch)
32
Anteriorly, what is each eye protected by?
an eyelid
33
What are the medial and lateral junctions of the upper and lower eyelids referred to as?
medial and lateral commissures (canthi)
34
What lines the internal surface of the eyelids and continues over the anterior surface of the eyeball to the outer edge of the cornea where it fuses with the corneal epithelium?
conjunctiva mucous membrane
35
What is the function of the conjunctiva?
secrete mucous which lubricates the eyeball
36
What is inflammation of the conjunctiva?
conjunctivitis
37
What structure projects from the edge of each eyelid?
eyelashes
38
What lies between the eyelashes?
ciliary glands
39
What is the function of the ciliary glands between the eyelashes?
lubricate the eyeball
40
What is the inflammation of one of the ciliary glands?
sty
41
What is located posterior to the eyelashes?
tarsal glands
42
What is the function of the tarsal glands?
secrete an oily substance
43
What consists of the lacrimal gland and a system of ducts?
lacrimal apparatus
44
What lies superior and lateral to each eye?
lacrimal glands
45
What is the function of the lacrimal glands?
continually release a dilute salt solution (tears) onto the anterior surface of the eyeball through small ducts
46
What do the tears produced first flush into?
lacrimal canaliculi
47
What do the tears flush into after the lacrimal canaliculi?
lacrimal sac
48
After the lacrimal sac, where do the tears flush?
nasolacrimal duct
49
Where does the nasolacrimal duct empty into?
the nasal cavity
50
What is the purpose of lacrimal fluid?
to cleanse and protect the eye surface as it moistens and lubricates it
51
How many eye muscles are attached to the exterior surface of each eyeball
six
52
What is the lateral rectus?
moves eye laterally
53
What is the medial rectus?
moves eye medially
54
What is the superior rectus?
elevates eye and turns it medially
55
What is the inferior rectus?
depresses eye and turns it medially
56
What is the inferior oblique?
elevates eye and turns it laterally
57
What is the superior oblique?
depresses eye and turns it laterally
58
What is the outermost part of the eye and is a protective later
fibrous layer
59
What is the fibrous layer composed of?
dense connective tissue
60
The fibrous layer is composed of what two regions?
sclera and cornea
61
What is the sclera?
opaque white area is seen anteriorly as the white of the eye and forms the bulk of the fibrous tunic
62
What is the cornea?
transparent through which light enters the eye
63
What is myopia?
near sighted
64
What is hyperopia?
far sighted
65
The eye is not acellular, but rather
avascular
66
what is the middle tunic?
uvea
67
Which layer of the eye is vascular?
middle tunic
68
What is the posterior part of the middle tunic?
choroid
69
What is the choroid?
a blood rich area and contains a dark pigment to prevent light scattering within the eye
70
Anteriorly the choroid is modified to form what?
ciliary body
71
What is attached to the ciliary body?
lens and the iris
72
What is the round opening in the iris?
pupil through which light passes
73
What is the iris composed of?
circularly and radially arranged smooth muscle fibers and acts like the diaphragm of a camera to regulate the amount of light entering the eye
74
In close vision and bright light what muscles in the iris contract?
circular muscle
75
In distant vision and dim light what contracts in the iris?
radial fibers
76
What is the innermost layer of the eye?
sensory layer
77
What is the sensory layer also known as?
retina
78
What happens to light when it enters the eye?
it bends
79
What is the transparent layer that extends anteriorly only to the ciliary body
neural (nervous tissue) layer
80
What does the neural layer contain?
rods and cones
81
What is the function of the rods and cones?
begin the chain of electrical events that pass from the photoreceptors to bipolar cells and then to the ganglion cells
82
What is the site where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball?
optic disc or blind spot
83
What is lateral to each blind spot?
macula lutea (yellow spot)
84
What is the macula lutea?
an area of high cone density
85
Where is the macula lutea located?
in the middle of the fovea centralis
86
What is the fovea centralis
a minute pit which contians only cones and is the area of greatest visual acuity
87
What is light entering the eye focused through?
lens
88
What is the lens held up in place by?
ciliary zonule
89
What is the ciliary zonule?
attached to ciliary body
90
The lens divides the eye into what two segments?
anterior segment and the posterior segment
91
What is the anterior segment?
anterior to the lens and contains a clear watery fluid
92
What is the clear watery fluid?
aqueous humor
93
What is the posterior segment?
behind the lens and is filled with a gel-like substance
94
What is the gel-like substance?
vitreous humor, vitreous body
95
Where is the aqueous humor formed?
by the capillaries of the ciliary body
96
What is the function of aqeuous humor?
maintain the introcular pressure of the eye and provides nutrients for the avascular lens and cornea
97
Where is aqueous humor reabsorbed?
scleral venous sinus (canal of schlemm)
98
Where is the scleral venous sinus located?
junction of the sclera and cornea
99
What is the function of vitreous humor?
reinforces the posterior part of the eyeball and keeps it pushed into its socket
100
When light passes from one substance to another with a different density its velocity or speed of transmission changes and the rays are bent or what
refracted
101
What causes the light to change its shape?
lens refractive strength by changing shape
102
What is accommodation?
ability of the eye to focus specifically for close objects
103
What is the image formed on the retina as a result of the light-bending activity of lens called?
a real image
104
What is the normal eye also called?
emmetropic eye
105
What are some visual problems?
lenses that are too strong or too lazy, structural problems such as an eyeball that is too long or too short, cornea or lens with improper curvatures
106
What is nearsightedness?
They can see close objects without difficulty but distant objects are blurred or indistinct
107
What is the correction of nearsightedness?
concave lens
108
What happens if the image focuses behind the retina?
farsightedness?
109
What is farsightedness?
don't have problems with distant vission but cant see upclose
110
What is the correction of farsightedness?
convex lense
111
Irregularities in the curvature of the lens and or the cornea lead to a blurred vision called what
astigmatism
112
What is the condition that results when the elasticity of the lens decreases dramatically with age, resulting in difficulty in focusing for close vision
presbyopia
113
How can lens elasticity be measured?
near point of accommodation
114
What are the three cone types?
red, blue, green
115
What are intrinsic muscles?
controlled by autonomic nervous system are those of the ciliary body and the radial and circular muscles of the iris
116
What are the extrinsic muscles?
rectus and oblique muscles which are attached to the outside of the eyeball
117
What is convergence?
medial eye movement which is essential for near vision, both eye aimed toward the same object
118
the ear is divided into what three main areas?
external ear, middle ear, internal ear
119
What is the function of outer and middle ear?
sense of hearing only
120
What is the function of the inner ear?
hearing reception and equilibrium
121
What is composed of the outer/external ear
auricle or pinna, and external acoustic meatus
122
What is the pinna?
the skin covered cartilage encircling the auditory canal opening
123
WHat is the external acoustic meatus?
auditory canal, short narrow chamber carved into the temporal bone
124
What is the auditory canal lined with??
wax-secreting glands called ceruminous glands
125
The sound waves enter the canal and hit what?
tympanic membrane
126
What is the tympanic membrane?
eardrum that separates the outer ear from the middle ear
127
What is the middle ear?
small air filled chamber- the typanic cavity within the temporal bone
128
What is contained in the middle ear?
auditory ossicles
129
What are the auditory ossicles?
hammer, anvil, stirrup
130
What is the function of the auditory ossicles?
transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to fluids of the inner ear
131
What do the auditory ossicles transmit the signals to the inner ear through?
oval window
132
What connects the middle ear chamber with the nasopharynx?
pharyngotympanic auditory tube
133
What is the pharyngotympanic tube function?
opened temporarily to equilize the pressure of the middle ear cavity with the external air pressure
134
Why is this function important (air pressure releasing)?
eardrum cannot vibrate properly
135
What is the internal of inner ear?
bony and rather toruous chamber called osseous, bony, labryinth
136
What is the bony labryinth filled with?
perilymph
137
What is floating in the perilymph?
membranous labyrinth
138
What is the membranous labryinth filled with?
more viscous fluid called endolymph
139
What are the three subdivisions of the bony labryinth?
cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals
140
What shape is the cochlea?
snail shaped
141
What does the cochlea contain?
receptors for hearing
142
What is the cochlear membranous labyrinth, a soft wormlike tube about 1 1/2 inches long that winds through turms of the cochlea?
cochlear duct
143
What is the upper chamber of the cochlea?
scala vestibuli
144
What does the scala vestibuli abut?
oval window
145
What is the lower chamber?
scala tympani
146
What does the scala tympani abut?
round window
147
What does the cochlear duct support?
spiral organ of Corti
148
What does the spiral organ of Corti contain?
receptors for hearing and nerve endings of the cochlear division of the vestibulochlear nerve
149
What do the hair cells rest on?
basilar membrane
150
What does the basilar membrane form?
the floor of the cochlear duct
151
What doe the hair project into?
tectorial membrane that overlies it
152
What is the roof of the cochlear duct?
vestibular membrane
153
What is the equilibrium apparatus of the inner ear?
vestibular and semicircular canal portions of the bony labryinth
154
What does the vestibular contain?
saclike utricle and the saccule and the semicircular chambers containing membranous semicircular ducts
155
What are the semicircular ducts?
suspended in perilymph in the bony chambers, filled with endolymph, contain receptor cells that are activated by the disturbance of their cilia
156
What do the semicircular ducts house?
dynamic equilibrium receptors
157
What is at the base of each semicircular duct (enlarged area)
ampulla
158
What does the ampulla contain?
receptor region called crista ampullaris
159
What does the crista ampullaris covered in?
tuft of hair cells with a gelatinous cap
160
What is this gelatinous cap called?
cupula
161
What do the membrane sacs in the vestibule contain?
maculae
162
What are maculae?
static equilibrium receptors that respond to gravitational pull and to linear or straightforwar changes in speed
163
What is the otolithic membrane?
a gelatinous material containing small grains of calcium carbonate
164
Where are the otolithic membrane?
over the hair cells in each macula
165
what is the second major controlling system in the body
endocrine system
166
what does the endocrine system do?
helps coordinate and integrate the activity of the body's cells
167
The nervous system uses neurons and electrical signals. What does the endocrine system use?
hormones and their chemical signals
168
What are hormones?
chemical messengers released into the blood to be transported throughout the body
169
What are some hormone producing glands?
anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, parathyroid
170
Where is the pituitary gland situated?
sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
171
What are the two functional areas of the pituitary gland?
posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary
172
What is the posterior pituitary gland composed of
nervous tissue
173
What is the anterior pituitary gland composed of
glandular tissue
174
Why is the posterior pituitary gland not an endocrine gland?
it does not produce the hormones it releases
175
What does the posterior pituitary gland store?
oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone ADH
176
What is oxytocin?
stimulates powerful uterine contractions during birth and causes milk ejection in the lactating mother
177
What is antidiuretic hormone?
kidneys to reabsorb more water from the forming urine, reducing urine output to conserve water
178
What does the anterior pituitary secrete?
number of hormones
179
What are tropic hormones
stimulate target organs that are also endocrine glands to secrete their hormones
180
What are the four tropic hormones of the anterior pituitary?
gonadotropins- follicle-stimlating horomone
luteinizing hormone
adrenocorticotropic hormone
thyroid stimulating hormone
181
What is the function of the gonadotropins hormone?
regulate gamete production and hormonal activity of gonads
182
What is the function of the adrenocorticotropic hormone?
regulates the endocrine activity of the cortex portion of the adrenal gland
183
What is the function of the thyroid stimulating hormone
influences the growth and activity of the thyroid gland
184
What are the 2 other hormones of the anterior pituitary that are not directly involved in regulating other endocrine glands?
growth hormone
| prolactin
185
What is the function of the growth hormone?
general metabolic hormone, plays an important role in determining body size
186
What is the function of prolactin?
stimulates breast development and promotes and maintains milk production
187
What has been considered the master endocrine gland
anterior pituitary because it controls the activity of so many other endocrine glands
188
What causes the anterior pituitary to release its hormones?
releasing or inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
189
What is the general structure of the thyroid?
two lobes joined by a central mass or isthmus
190
Where is the thyroid located?
throat, inferior to adams apple
191
What are the two major hormones produced by the thyroid?
thyroid hormone and calcitonin
192
What is the thyroid hormone function?
two active hormones T4 and T3 and is to control the rate of body metabolism and cellular oxidation
193
What is the function of calcitonin?
decreases blood calcium levels by stimulating calcium deposit in the bones
194
What are follicles of the thyroid gland?
spherical sacs containing a pink stained material
195
What is stored in the follicles of the thyroid gland?
thyroglobulin
196
What are the cells seen between the follicles
parafollicular cells
197
What is the function of parafollicular cells?
calcitonin
198
Where are the parathyroid glands located?
embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
199
What does the parathyroid gland secrete?
parathyroid hormone
200
What is the function of the parathyroid hormone?
regulator of calcium phosphate ion homeostasis of the blood, and causes release of calcium from bone matrixs and causes kidneys to reabsorb more calcium
201
If blood calcium levels fall too low what can occur
tetany
202
What is tetany?
prolonged muscle spasm, can cause respiratory paralysis and may be fatal
203
Where are the adrenal glands located?
atop the kidneys
204
Anatomically what does the adrenal medulla develop from?
neural tissue
205
How are the adrenal medulla stimulated?
nervous system neurons
206
How do the adrenal medulla respond to stimulation
releasing epinephrine or norepinephrine
207
What is the function of epinephrine or norepinephrine?
acts with the sympathetic nervous system to produce the fight or flight response to stressors
208
The adrenal cortex produces three major groups of steroid hormones called what
corticosteroids
209
What are the three hormones produced by adrenal cortex called individually?
mineralocorticoids
glucocorticoids,
gonadocorticoids
210
What is the function of mineralocorticoids?
aldosterone, which regulates water and electrolyte balance in the extracellular fluids
211
What is the function of glucocorticoids?
resist long-term stressors
212
What is the function of gonadocorticoids?
sex hormone
213
Where is the pancreas located?
partially behind the stomach in the abdomen ands acts as an exocrine and an endocrine gland
214
What does the pancreas release?
insulin and glucagon
215
What stimulates the release of insulin?
high blood glucose levels
216
What is the function of insulin?
decreases blood sugar levels
217
What is the function of glucagon?
it stimulates the liver to break down its glycogen stores to glucose and to release the glucose to the blood
218
What stimulates the release of glucagon?
too low of blood glucose levels
219
What are the roughly circular endocrine portions of the pancreas?
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
220
What are alpha cells of the pancreas?
produce glucagon
221
What are the beta cells of the pancreas?
synthesize insulin
222
Where are the gonads located?
in the lower pelvic cavity
223
What are the female gonads?
ovaries
224
What do the female gonads produce?
female sex cells, two groups of steroid hormones, estrogen and progesterone
225
What is the function of estrogen?
development of the secondary sex characteristics of the female at puberty
226
What is the function of progesterone?
work with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
227
What are the male gonads?
testes
228
What do the testes produce?
male sex cells, testosterone
229
What is the function of testosterone
produces the maturation of the reproductive system accessory structures
