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Human Anatomy Lecture > Abdomen and Pelvic Cavity > Flashcards

Abdomen and Pelvic Cavity Flashcards

1
Q

what is the boundary where the abdominal cavity becomes the pelvic cavity

A

pubic symphysis, L5 level

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2
Q

what happens to urine production if there is a drop in blood pressure

A

it goes down to try to conserve water and therefore blood pressure

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3
Q

what three structures make up the lower urinary tract

A

ureters
bladder
urethra

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4
Q

what is the flow of urine

A

kidney
ureters
bladder
urethra

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5
Q

explain how kidneys regulate fluid and electrolyte balance

A

regulate osmolarity by either conserving or eliminating water and electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium)

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6
Q

explain how kidneys excrete metabolic wastes

A

they filter out CO2, phosphates, and nitrogenous wastes (urea, ammonia, uric acid, and creatinine)
eliminate them via urine

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7
Q

how is urea produced

A

it is a waste product made when your liver breaks down protein

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8
Q

how is uric acid produced

A

chemical created when the body breaks down purines

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9
Q

how is creatinine produced

A

waste product of creatine

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10
Q

explain how kidneys maintain acid-base balance

A

regulates blood pH by conserving or eliminating hydrogen and bicarbonate ions

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11
Q

what is the optimal pH range for the body

A

7.35-7.45

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12
Q

what happens to pH if you remove hydrogen ions

A

pH increases

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13
Q

what three “hormones” do kidneys secrete

A

renin
erythropoietin
*prostaglandins - not technically a hormone

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14
Q

what does renin do

A

converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin 1 in the RAAS system
eventually, vessels constrict which causes hypertension and an increase in blood pressure
helps to maintain blood pressure

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15
Q

what does erythropoietin do

A

regulates making of red blood cells (erythropoiesis)
can increase red blood cell formation to combat anemia

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16
Q

what are protaglandins and what do they do

A

lipids made at sites of infection/damage
regulate renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate

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17
Q

what substances do the kidneys detoxify in the blood

A

heavy metals
excess salt
excess vitamin C

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18
Q

how do kidneys regulate vitamin D metabolism

A

convert inactive form of vitamin D into active form (calcitriol)

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19
Q

what is gluconeogenesis

A

making of new glucose
can be done by the kidneys

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20
Q

what 5 heavy metals should we only see trace amounts of in the blood

A

chromium
copper
iron
manganese
zinc
*too much of these in the blood could indicate that the kidneys are not functioning properly

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21
Q

what percentage of kidney failure will you have to be at to be symptomatic

A

75% failure

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22
Q

how is kidney failure determined

A

high creatinine levels

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23
Q

what happens when you have damaged kidneys

A

less buffering (pH maintenance) capacity
more phophate, less calcium (muscle twitching)
more sodium, water, and edema
more potassium, hyperkalemia, cardiac muscles affected

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24
Q

what is hyperkalemia

A

too much potassium in the blood
typically due to kidney failure

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25
Q

what are the four external layers of the kidney from superficial to deep

A

pararenal (paranephric) fat capsule
renal fascia (Gerota’s fascia)
adipose capsule (perirenal or perinephric fat capsule)
renal capsule

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26
Q

where would you find paranephric (pararenal) fat

A

on posterior region of kidney

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27
Q

what does the renal fascia (gerota’s fascia) do

A

anchors kidney to peritoneum and muscles of posterior abdominal wall (psoas major and quadratus)

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28
Q

what does the adipose capsule (perirenal or perinephric fat capsule) do

A

found within the renal fascia directly touching the kidney
keeps kidneys in place and shields them from physical shock

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29
Q

what does the renal capsule do

A

covers exterior of kidney
protects kidney from outside infection and physical trauma
invaginates to become outer layer of calyces and pelvis

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30
Q

how much does a kidney weigh in both males and females

A

female: 130 g
male: 160 g

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31
Q

how are the structures entering the hilum of the kidney from anterior to posterior

A

renal vein
renal artery
nerves
lymph vessels
ureters

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32
Q

what is the renal sinus and what does it do

A

made up of calyces, pelvis, and fat
anchors vessels in place

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33
Q

how is the kidney broken up

A

superior pole (at the end closest to the adrenal gland)
lateral border (opposite the hilum)
innferior pole (at the end farthest from the adrenal gland)

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34
Q

where is the right kidney located

A

slightly inferior due to the liver

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35
Q

where is the left kidney located

A

between T11-L2 vertebrae
higher than right kidney becuase no liver on that side

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36
Q

which ribs protect the kidneys

A

the floating ribs (11+12)

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37
Q

what structures do you find around the right kidney

A

liver
hepatic flexture
duodenum
IVC
psoas muscle

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38
Q

what structures do you find around the left kidney

A

descending colon
ligament of treitz
psoas muscle

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39
Q

what are kidneys like during utero

A

start with 8 lobes
start out in the pelvis then ascend to the abdomen

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40
Q

what are the three distinct regions of the internal kidney

A

renal cortex
renal medulla
renal pelvis

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41
Q

what is the renal cortex

A

rim of reddish-brown tissue around the inside of the kidney
holds 95% of all kidneys blood vessels

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42
Q

what is the renal medulla

A

Inner portion of kidney deep to the cortex
includes several renal pyramids and the columns between them
darkened due to lack of blood vessels

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43
Q

what are renal columns (of Bertin)

A

invaginations of the renal cortex between renal pyramids
has branches of the renal artery going to the outer cortex

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44
Q

what are nephrons and where are they found

A

filtering apparatus made of renal corpuscle and renal tubule
found within the cortex with extensions into the medulla

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45
Q

what do the renal corpuscles do

A

made of glomerulus and its capsule
filters blood

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46
Q

what are renal tubules and what do they do

A

made of proximal tubule, loop henle, and distal tubule
collect and modify filtrate

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47
Q

what are the two types of nephrons

A

cortical and juxtamedullary

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48
Q

what are some features of the cortical nephrons

A

make up 80% of nephrons
found primarily in renal cortex and have small nephron loops

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49
Q

what are some features of juxtamedullary nephrons

A

nephrons whose loop extends deep into the renal pyramid

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50
Q

what are the three portions of the collecting duct from cortex to minor calyx

A

cortical (within cortext)
medullary (within pyramid)
papillary (bottom of pyramid)

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51
Q

what is the papilla

A

bottom portion of renal pyramid

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52
Q

what makes up a major calyx

A

3-4 minor calyces

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53
Q

what makes the renal pelvis

A

2-3 major calyx

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54
Q

what is the ureteropelvic junction

A

constriction at the junction of the renal pelvis and ureter

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55
Q

what is a bifid renal pelvis

A

more than one renal pelvis

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56
Q

invasion of what two structures halves the survival rate of kidney cancer

A

renal vein or renal capsule

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57
Q

explain transitional cell cancer

A

cancer of the transitional epithelial cells
can occur in the pelvis, top of ureter, and bladder
treated by removing entire kidney and ureter

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58
Q

explain renal cell cancer

A

tumor of lining of small tubes in kidney
treated by removing kidney and a small portion of ureter
symptoms don’t present until it’s severe
most common in older men

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59
Q

explain nephrolithiasis

A

kidney stones
caused by dehydration, obesity, salt, etc.
pain radiates medially and inferiorly from lumbar region to pubic region
diagnosed through CT scan or intravenous pylogram

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60
Q

what is the arterial blood flow of the kidney

A

abdominal aorta
R + L renal arteries
segmental artery
interlobar artery
arcuate artery
interlobular (cortical radiate artery)
afferent arterioles
glomerulus
efferent arteriole
peritubular capillaries

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61
Q

what are peritubular capillaries and what do they do

A

branches from neighboring cortical nephrons (mixed)
supply blood to loops of cortical nephrons

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62
Q

what is the vasa recta and what does it do

A

ladder-like network of capillaries that arise from efferent arterioles (mixed)
allows juxtamedullary nephrons to control volume and concentration of urine

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63
Q

why is the renal medulla (pyramids) vulnerable to ischemia

A

because they are relatively avascular and have low hematocrit value

64
Q

where do the capillary beds (peritubular capillaries or vasa recta) drain into

A

interlobular veins

65
Q

what is the venous flow of the kidney

A

interlobular veins
arcuate veins
interlobar vein
renal vein
IVC

66
Q

how long and wide is the adult ureter

A

length: 25-30 cm
diameter: 3-4 mm

67
Q

at which vertebral level do the ureters originate

A

L2

68
Q

what are the three layers of the ureter from superficial to deep

A

adventitia
muscularis
mucosa

69
Q

what is the mucosa layer of the ureters made of and what does it do

A

made of transitional epithelium
capable of expanding and contracting 5 times/minute

70
Q

what is unique about how the ureters enter the bladder

A

enter at an oblique angle
function as a valve

71
Q

how does the parasympathetic division effect the ureter

A

increases peristalsis
(contracts up to 5x/minute)

72
Q

how does the sympathetic division effect the ureter

A

decreases peristalsis

73
Q

how much urine can the bladder hold

A

700-800 mL

74
Q

what is the trigone of the bladder

A

triangular region on the bladder’s floor
made of both ureter openings and internal urethral orifice
smooth, no folds

75
Q

what two things hold the bladder in place

A

parietal peritoneum and median umbilical ligament

76
Q

what is the median umbilical ligament and what does it do

A

remnant of urachus
attaches the apex of bladder to umbilicus

77
Q

what was the urachus

A

remnant of a channel between bladder and umbilicus where urine drains in the fetus during the 1st trimester
turns into median umbilical ligament

78
Q

where is the neck region of the bladder

A

around the opening to the urethra

79
Q

where is the apex region of the bladder

A

where the median umbilical ligament is located
towards the superior edge of the pubic symphysis

80
Q

where is the fundus region of the bladder located

A

opposite to the apex

81
Q

what is the detrusor muscle and what is it innervated by

A

smooth muscle of the bladder wall
innervated by the sympathetic trunk (causes relaxation of bladder during fight or flight)

82
Q

explain pyelonephritis

A

inflammation of kidney due to bacteria in blood or ureters
causes flank, groin, or back pain
must be treated with antibiotics or can cause renal failure

83
Q

explain nephrosclerosis

A

usually seen in older people with high blood pressure
arterionephrosclerosis (artery thickening) and arteriolonephrosclerosis (hardening of kidney)

84
Q

explain bladder cancer

A

most common in trigone
can be cured if caught early
patients present with blood in urine

85
Q

what is the internal urethral sphincter and what is it innervated by

A

smooth muscle opening of urethra within the bladder
innervated by parasympathetic division

86
Q

what is the external urethral sphincter and what is it innervated by

A

skeletal muscle opening
formed by levator ani muscles
voluntarily innervated by cerebral cortex

87
Q

what are the differences between the female and male urethra

A

male: 20 cm long and serves both a urinary and reproductive purpose
female: 4 cm long and serves only a urinary purpose

88
Q

what are the three sections of the male urethra from superior to inferior

A

prostatic
membranous (intermediate)
spongy (cavernous)

89
Q

what are some features of the prostatic urethra

A

3 cm long
runs from the neck of the bladder to the urogenital diaphragm

90
Q

what are some features of the membranous (intermediate) urethra

A

1-2 cm long
found on pelvic floor
runs from bottom of prostate to start of shaft
surrounded by external urethral sphincter

91
Q

what are some features of the spongy (cavernous) urethra

A

15 cm long
starts near cowper’s gland opening and extends through penis
terminates at external urethral orifice

92
Q

what are cowper’s glands

A

bulbourethral glands

93
Q

what are the 5 sequential stages of external genitalia development

A

genetic
gonadal
hormonal
phenotypic
psychological

94
Q

at which stage do the internal and external genitalia develop into male or female structures

A

phenotypic stage (6-7 weeks)

95
Q

what happens during the phenotypic stage

A

both: paramesonpehric (mullerian) ducts develop then mesonephric (wolffian) ducts develop
male: mesonephric (wolffian) duct differentiates into epididymis, vas deferns, and seminal vesicle between weeks 8-12; paramesonephric (mullerian) duct degenerates around week 7
female: paramesonephric (mullerian) duct differentiates into fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper part of vagina between weeks 10-13; mesonephric (wolffian) duct degenerates around week 10

96
Q

where do the paramesonephric (mullerian) and the mesonephric (wolffian) ducts develop

A

on the surface of the mesonephric kidneys

97
Q

what is SRY

A

sex determining region of y chromosome that is a transcription factor

98
Q

what is AMH and what does it do

A

anti-mullerian hormone
causes regression of mullerian ducts in males
released by sertoli cells

99
Q

what is DHT and what does it do

A

dihydrotesterone hormone
responsible for formation of male primary sex characteristics during embryonic life

100
Q

what are the female sex chromosomes

A

XX

101
Q

what are the male sex chromosomes

A

XY

102
Q

what is the testis homologous with

A

ovary

103
Q

what is the glans penis homologous with

A

glans clitoris

104
Q

what is the shaft of penis homologous with

A

body of clitoris

105
Q

what is the scrotum homologous with

A

labia majora

106
Q

what is the appendix testis homologous with

A

fimbriated end of fallopian tube

107
Q

what is the lower end of the uterus and vagina homologous with

A

prostatic utricle

108
Q

what is the prostatic utricle

A

remnant of the paramesonephric (mullerian) duct in males

109
Q

what is the corpus spongiosum homologous with

A

vestibular bulb

110
Q

what is the round and ovarian ligament homologous with

A

gubernaculum

111
Q

what are the bulbourethral (cowper’s) glands homologous with

A

bartholin’s glands

112
Q

what are the boundaries of the perineum

A

pubic symphysis and coccyx

113
Q

what is the urogenital triangle

A

pubic symphysis half of your obturator foramen
includes external urinary and reproductive structures

114
Q

what is the anal triangle

A

coccyx side half of your obturator foramen
contains the anus

115
Q

what runs through the inguinal canal

A

spermatic cord (round ligament), blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves

116
Q

where is the superficial (external) inguinal ring

A

anterior opening of inguinal canal

117
Q

where is the deep (internal) inguinal ring

A

posterior opening to inguinal canal

118
Q

where does the inguinal ligament/canal run

A

between your anterior superior iliac spine and pubic tubercle

119
Q

what forms the anterior wall of the inguinal canal

A

external oblique aponeurosis

120
Q

what forms the posterior wall of inguinal canal

A

transversalis fascia, medial internal oblique, and transversus abdominus aponeurosis

121
Q

what forms the roof of the inguinal canal

A

external oblique
internal oblique
transversalis fascia
transversus abdominis
inguinal triangle (hesselbach’s traingle)

122
Q

what are the three boundaries of Hesselbach’s triangle

A

inferior epigastric artery and vein
inguinal ligament
linea semilunaris (found on lateral edges of rectus abdominis muscle)

123
Q

what forms the floor of the inguinal canal

A

iliopubic tract
inguinal ligament
lacunar ligament
femoral triangle

124
Q

what is the femoral triangle made of

A

inguinal ligament
adductor longus
sartorius

125
Q

what runs through the femoral triangle

A

femoral artery, vein, and nerve
femoral canal

126
Q

what is a inguinal hernia

A

protrusion of parietal peritoneum and visceral
two types: indirect and direct

127
Q

explain an indirect (congenital) hernia

A

most common - occurs during gestation
opening of processus vaginalis (canal that things travel through) - never fuses
spans entire inguinal canal (ring)

128
Q

explain a direct (acquired) hernia

A

weakness in inguinal (hesselback’s) triangle
tissue can tear and pass around or through medial 1/3rd (back) of inguinal canal

129
Q

explain a femoral hernia

A

caused by a weakening in the femoral canal
causes a bulge below inguinal ligament
can cause strangulation of intestine

130
Q

explain an abdominal (ventral) hernia

A

occurs along midline of abdominal wall
three types:
epigastric: fat comes through the linea alba
umbilical: near belly button
incisional: at a scar

131
Q

where are the testis found before they descend

A

within the abdominal cavity, behind the peritoneum

132
Q

what are the two functions of the testes

A

sperm production and secretion of androgen hormones like testosterone

133
Q

how much does one testicle weigh

A

20 g

134
Q

where does testicular cancer spread to

A

peri-aortic nodes

135
Q

what is the pampiniform venous plexus

A

converges with testicular veins after draining blood from testes
right: drains into IVC
left: drains into renal vein then IVC
innervated by ANS

136
Q

what is the tunica vaginalis

A

closed peritoneal sac around testi
parietal and visceral layer with fluid between them

137
Q

what is appendix testis (hydatid of morgagni)

A

small remnant of mullerian duct
found on the testis around the head of the epididymis

138
Q

what is the scrotal ligament

A

remnant of gubernaculum
found on the inferior portion of the testis
secures testies to south pole

139
Q

what is the tunica albuginea

A

tough fibrous surface that surrounds the testi (innermost layer)
thickens in the middle to form septa

140
Q

what is the sperm flow

A

seminiferous tubules
single straight tubule
rete testis
efferent ductules
epididymis
ductus deferens

141
Q

what is the rete testis and what does it do

A

network of tubules in posterior testis
transports sperm to efferent ductules
allows more access to vascular openings for tumors

142
Q

what is semen

A

secretions from accessory structures which provide nourishment and support to the sperm

143
Q

what are the four portions of the duct system

A

epididymis
ductus deferens
ejaculatory duct
urethra

144
Q

what is the site of sperm maturation and storage

A

epididymis

145
Q

what is the appendix epididymis

A

modified efferent duct
attached to head of epididymis
remnant of wolffian duct

146
Q

where do the ductus deferens run

A

tail of epididymis
up the spermatic cord
through inguinal canal
into pelvic cavity
lateral side of bladder
over ureter
posterior side of bladder
terminates in ampulla
ejaculatory duct

147
Q

what are the three layers of the ductus deferens

A

inner mucosa (pseudostratified)
muscularis
adventitia

148
Q

what are the three layers of the muscularis of the ductus deferens

A

inner and outer longitudinal muscle
middle circular muscle

149
Q

where does the ejaculatory duct run

A

begins at the junction of ductus deferens ampulla and seminal vesicle
dumps into prostatic urethra

150
Q

which artery supplies the penile skin, fascia, and corpus spongiosum

A

dorsal arteries

151
Q

which artery supplies the corpora cavernosa

A

deep arteries

152
Q

what is the parasympathetic and sympathetic innveration for the penis

A

parasympathetic: pudendal nerve
sympathetic: hypogastric nerve

153
Q

what does the pudendal nerve do

A

innervates the parasympathetic divison of the penis
controls micturition, defecation, erection, and ejaculation

154
Q

what is signficant about the urethral mucosa

A

has mucous glands
secreted mucous combines with semen

155
Q

where is the root of the penis located and what is it made of

A

membranous urethral area
made of crus and bulb of penis

156
Q

what is the body of the penis composed of

A

2 corpora cavernosa
1 corpus spongiosum

157
Q

what is glans penis composed of

A

prepuce (foreskin)
external urethral orifice

Human Anatomy Lecture (18 decks)

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