ANATOMY + PHYSIOLOGY Flashcards
(268 cards)
1
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
5 functions
A
- large ga sa between air and blood
- Moves air to and from lung surfaces
- Protect respiratory surfaces from outside environment
- Produce sound
- olfactory sense
2
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what are the 2 portions of the respiratory tract
A
CONDUCTING PORTION :
nasal cavity - terminal bronchioles
RESPIRATORY PORTION:
bronchioles, alveoli
3
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
how many times do the airways branch?
A
23
4
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what is the difference between the left and right lung?
A
right lung: 3 lobes inc middle lobe
left lung: 2 lobes only
5
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: RESPIRATORY MUCOSA
1) 2 layers
2) what part of the respiratory system does it line?
3) what underlines it
A
1) epithelial layer
areolar layer
2) conducting portion
3) lamina propria
6
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - respiratory mucosa
1) what feature does the upper resp. system include
2) in the conducting portion of the lower resp. , what is the feature and what does it do
A
1) mucous glands
2) smooth muscle, allow bronchi constriction, dilation
7
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
upper respiratory system (4)
A
nose
nasal cavity
sinuses
pharynx
8
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
lower respiratory system (5)
A
larynx
trachea
bronchus
bronchioles
alveoli
9
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - nasal cavity
1) where does air enter?
A
1) nostrils, external name — nasal vestibule
10
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - nasal cavity
what is the first particle filtration system?
what does it flow through next? (hint: 3 of them)
A
nasal hairs In nasal vestibule
through 3 nasal meatuses
11
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what are the 2 types of palate?
where are they?
what do they separate?
what do they form?
A
HARD PALATE:
nasal cavity floor
separate nasal + oral cavities
roof of mouth
SOFT PALATE:
back of hard palate
divide superior nasopharynx from lower pharynx
12
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - pharynx
1) what 2 systems is this chamber shared by?
2) where is it located to and from?
3) what are the 3 divisions?
A
1) respiratory + digestive
2) from internal nares – larynx + esophagus entrance
13
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - pharynx
what are the 3 divisions?
A
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngopharynx
14
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - larynx
what does it surround?
what sort of structure is it?
A
glottis (lid to stop food entering)
cartilaginous
15
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1) how is sound produced?
2) how is sound variation produced?
3) what is the name of sound production at the larynx
A
1) air passing through glottis
vibrate vocal folds , sound waves
2) tension on vocal fold
3) phonation
16
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - bronchi
1) name of the internal ridge that separates R + L primary bronchi
2) which primary bronchus has the larger diameter and steeper descent
3) where do the primary bronchus travel to
+ along what surface of the lung
A
1) carina
2) Right primary bronchus
3) hilium , medial surface of lung
17
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what forms the bronchial tree
A
primary bronchi + their branches
18
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - respiratory volumes
1) INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOL
2) TIDAL VOL
3) FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY
4) INSPIRATORY CAPACITY
A
1) vol of gas inspired after normal tidal inspiration
2) vol of gas inspired/expired during normal breath
3) gas in lungs after normal expiration
4) max gas inspired
19
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - respiratory volumes
5) EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOL
6) RESIDUAL VOL
7) VITAL CAPACITY
8) TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY
A
5) vol of gas expired at end of tidal expiration
6) vol of gas in lungs after max expiration
7) max vol of gas expired after max inspiration
8) total gas vol in lungs after max inspiration
20
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what does the primary bronchi branch to form?
A
secondary bronchi (lobar bronchi)
21
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what Is the name of the branches within the lungs?
A
intrapulmonary bronchi
22
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what does the secondary bronchi branch to form?
what do these do?
A
segmental bronchi
supply air to single bronchopulmonary segment
23
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Tertiary bronchus branch into _________ ________ , which then branch into _________ __________
A
multiple bronchioles
terminal bronchioles
24
Q
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1) bronchodilation
2) bronchoconstriction
what is happening?
what is it caused by?
A
1) bronchial airways dilating , sympathetic ANS activation
2) parasympathetic ANS activation / histamine release
25
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what's the difference between external + internal respiration?
EXTERNAL : o2 co2 exchange with environment
INTERNAL : cellular respiration
26
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what is pulmonary ventilation?
physical movement of air in + out of respiratory tract
27
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
what is Boyle's Law?
P = 1/V
p = pressure, v = volume
shows relationship between gas pressure and volume
28
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
describe the process of breathing (INSPIRATION)
1. initiated by respiratory control centre in medulla
2. diaphragm + intercostals contract
3. diaphragm moves down
4. external intercostals move ribs up and out
5. thoracic cavity increased
29
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
describe surface tension
thin film of liquid around alveoli
surfactant molecules attracted to each other, helps passive recoil of alveoli
elastic recoil
30
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - quiet breathing
1) is the inhalation/exhalation passive or active?
2) name for deep breathing? dominated by?
3) name for shallow breathing? dominated by?
1) activate inhalation
passive exhalation
2) diaphragmatic breathing, diaphragm
3) costal breathing, ribcage movements
31
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - forced breathing
1) AKA:
2) inhalation/exhalation active or passive?
3) what is it assisted by?
1) hyperpnea
2) active
3) accessory muscles
32
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
equation which shows:
vol of air moved each minute
VE = f x VT
ve = vol of air moved each min
f = breaths per min
vt = tidal vol
33
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
equation which shows:
areolar ventilation
VA = f x (VT - VD)
va = areolar ventilation
f = breaths per min
vt = tidal vol
vd = dead anatomical space
34
GAS EXCHANGE
what type of epithelium is is alveolar epithelium?
what type of cells make this?
simple squamous epithelium
type 1 cells
35
GAS EXCHANGE
1) what cells is the alveolar epithelium patrolled by?
2) what type of cells produce surfactant?
1) alveolar macrophages
2) type 2 cells, produce surfactant
36
GAS EXCHANGE - henrys law
gas dissolves in liquid until equilibrium is reached
37
GAS EXCHANGE
5 reasons for gas exchange efficiency
1. substantial difference in partial pressure across membrane
2. short distance in gas exchange
3. o2 + co2 = lipid soluble
4. total SA = large
5. blood flow + air flow are coordinated
38
GAS EXCHANGE
- PULMONARY CIRCUIT
- SYSTEMIC CIRCUIT
PULMONARY:
blood vessels to and from lungs
SYSTEMIC:
blood vessels serve rest of body
39
GAS EXCHANGE
how does altitude effect alveolar air
reduces partial pressures
40
GAS EXCHANGE
describe partial pressures in pulmonary artery blood
low po2
high pco2
conc gradient = o2 enter, co2 leave
41
GAS EXCHANGE
why is the oxygen-haemoglobin saturation curve curved not straight?
Hb changes shape each time o2 molecule binds
makes next o2 easier to bind
42
GAS EXCHANGE
1) haemoglobin release o2 easier in _____ temp
2) haemoglobin release o2 less easily in _______ temp
3) where are temp effects significant?
1) high temp
2) low temp
3) active tissue
43
GAS EXCHANGE
1) what is the BOHR EFFECT a result of?
2) what enzyme catalyses reaction of co2 with h2O?
3) what is formed from this?
1) pH
pH effected by co2
2) carbonic anhydrase
3) carbonic acid
44
GAS EXCHANGE
1) what BPG produced from?
2) what does BPG effect?
3) when do BPG levels rise?
4) what happens when BPG levels low?
1) RBC producing atp
2) o2 release
3) ph increase
hormones
4) haem not release o2
45
GAS EXCHANGE
3 transport pathways for co2
1) dissolve in plasma
2) bind to haem
3) converted to carbonic acid
46
GAS EXCHANGE
if po2 increases, haemoglobin ______ oxygen
If po2 decreases haemoglobin ______ oxygen
binds
releases
47
GAS EXCHANGE - control of respiration
what are the 2 types of neural control from the brain?
involuntary
voluntary
48
GAS EXCHANGE
what does involuntary respiratory control do?
- regulate respiratory muscle activity
- frequency + depth
- respond to info from lungs + respiratory tract
49
GAS EXCHANGE
what does voluntary respiratory control do?
reflect activity in cerebral cortex
affect output of respiratory centres + motor neurones
50
GAS EXCHANGE
what are the 2 centres of the pons and what do they do?
APNEUSTIC: promote inhalation, stimulate DRG
PNEUMOTAXIC: inhibit apneustic, promote passive/active exhalation
51
GAS EXCHANGE
what are the 2 sections of the medulla oblongata?
DORSAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (DRG):
inspiratory centre
- quiet + forced breathing
VENTRAL RESPIRATORY GROUP (VRG):
inspiratory + expiratory centre
- only in forced breathing
52
GAS EXCHANGE
role of chemoreceptors
respond to pco2, po2, pH of blood or cerebral spinal fluid
53
GAS EXCHANGE
role of baroreceptors
change in blood pressure
54
GAS EXCHANGE
how to chemoreceptors respond to INCREASE pco2
what does pco2 increase cause
- decrease pH in CSF
- CSF chemoreceptors stimulated @ medulla
- respiratory muscles stimulated
- increase respiratory rate
- restore homeostasis
55
GAS EXCHANGE
how do chemoreceptors respond to DECREASE pco2
- increase pH in CSF
- arterial chemoreceptors inhibited
- decrease stimulation of CSF chemoreceptors
- inhibit respiratory muscles
- decrease respiratory rate
56
GAS EXCHANGE - respiratory changes @ birth
what happens:
1) before birth
2) at birth
1) pulmonary vessels collapsed . no air in lungs
2) surface tension force inflate bronchial tree + alveoli
57
GAS EXCHANGE - respiratory changes in elderly
2 things that happen
name of smoking
- elastic tissue deteriorate
- decrease flexibility, arthritic changes
EMPHYSEMA
58
CV SYSTEM
What are the 3 functions
PROTECTION: against infection Wbc
TRANSPORT: hormone, co2 o2 fuel
MAINTENANCE: body temp
59
CV SYSTEM
what are the 3 components of the circulatory system
BLOOD
BLOOD VESSELS
THE HEART
60
CV SYSTEM
describe the location of the heart
(4)
thoracic cavity
anterior of chest
posterior to sternum
between lungs
61
CV SYSTEM
what system does the
1) right atrium
2) left atrium
receive blood from?
1) systemic circuit
2) pulmonary circuit
62
CV SYSTEM
what system does the
1) left ventricle
2) right ventricle
pump blood into?
1) pulmonary circuit
2) systemic circuit
63
CV SYSTEM
what are the 3 layers of the heart wall (outside to inside
) ?
1) pericardium
2) myocardium
3) endocardium
64
CV SYSTEM
pericardium
fibrous tissue
stabilise heart
lubricate , pericardial fluid
65
CV SYSTEM
myocardium
thick muscle
Y shape, branched
large central nucleus
lots of mitochondria
myogenic, involuntary
intercalated discs
66
CV SYSTEM
intercalated discs
what are they
2 components
junctions between cells
GAP JUNCTIONS - depolarisation pass between cells
DESMOSOMES - bind adjacent myocytes
67
CV SYSTEM
endocardium
what does it cover
what is it made from
cover internal surfaces
- chambers, valves
epithelial tissue
68
CV SYSTEM
pathway of deoxygenated blood
vena cava
right atrium
tricuspid valve
right ventricle
pulmonary valve
pulmonary artery
69
CV SYSTEM
pathway of oxygenated blood
pulmonary vein
left atrium
bicuspid valve
left ventricle
aortic valve
aorta
70
CV SYSTEM
name 2 differences between the LV and RV
LV = thick , cylindrical
RV = thin, pouch shape
71
CV SYSTEM
what are the 2 types of cardiac muscle cells
CONTRACTILE : produce contraction
CARDIAC PACEMAKER CELLS : nodal / conducting
72
CV SYSTEM
electrical journey of heart
(4)
1. SA NODE (pacemaker)
2. AV NODE
3. AV BUNDLE (bundle of his)
4. PURKINJE FIBRES
73
CV SYSTEM
factors that change HR (4)
1. autonomic nervous system
2. catecholamines
3. change in o2 / co2 levels
4. change in BP
74
CV SYSTEM
what does
1) sympathetic nervous system
2) parasympathetic nervous system
do to hr
1) increase HR
2) slow HR
75
CV SYSTEM - catecholamines
ADRENALINE (epinephrine)
released by adrenal medulla
increase hr
by binding to adrenergic receptors
76
CV SYSTEM - catecholamines
NORADRENALINE ( Noraphinephrine)
initially increase hr , long term decrease
bind to heart adrenergic receptors
77
CV SYSTEM
Summarise the 6 stages of the cardiac cycle
1) ATRIAL SYSTOLE begin
blood into ventricle
2) ATRIAL SYSTOLE END, ATRIAL DIASTOLE BEGIN
3) VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE 1
pressure close AV valves
4) VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE 2
semilunar valve open , blood out
5) VENTIRCULAR DIASTOLE early
blood into atria
6) VENTRICULAR DIASTOLE late
chambers close and fill
78
CV SYSTEM
arterial system
2 components
what does this system do?
arteries
arterioles
blood away from heart
79
CV SYSTEM
what is the arteriovenous anastomosis
low resistance pathway
bypass capillary bed
used for rapid control of blood e.g: reduce body temp quickly
80
CV SYSTEM
blood flow pathway through circulation
heart
artery
capillary
venule
vein
heart
81
CV SYSTEM
what system is there lower pressure in
systemic venous
82
CV SYSTEM
what are the 3 layers in a blood vessel?
tunica intima
tunica media
tunica externa
83
CV SYSTEM
tunica intima (inside layer)
- endothelial lining
- connective tissue lining
- internal elastic membrane
84
CV SYSTEM
endothelium
release vasoactive substance
effect vascular tone, bp, blood flow
maintain vascular homeostasis
85
CV SYSTEM
tunica media (middle)
concentric sheet of smooth muscle in loose connective tissue
around endothelium
bind to inner and outer layers
86
CV SYSTEM
what separates tunica media and tunica external
external elastic membrane (arteries)
87
CV SYSTEM
tunica externa (outer layer)
anchor vessel to adjacent tissue
contains:
- collagen fibres
- elastic fibres
- smooth muscle cell (in veins)
88
CV SYSTEM
what is the term for 'vessels of vessels'
vaso vasorum
small arteries/veins in large arteries/veins
89
CV SYSTEM
artery wall
intima
media
externa
round thick wall
I: rippled , internal elastic membrane
M: thick, smooth muscle, elastic fibre
external elastic mem
E: collagen + elastic fibres
90
CV SYSTEM
vein wall
flattened, collapsed, thin
I: smooth, NO internal elastic mem
M: thin, smooth muscle, collagen fibres, NO external mem
E: collagen , elastic fibres
91
CV SYSTEM
what are the 3 types of artery?
elastic artery
muscular artery
arterioles
92
CV SYSTEM
ELASTIC ARTERY
2 examples
AORTA - high elastic in tunica media
CONDUCTING ARTERY - secondary pump
93
CV SYSTEM
MUSCULAR ARTERY
what does tunica media consist of
what does lower limbs have more of
tunica media = smooth muscle
smooth muscle, less elastin, greater vasoconstriction/dilation
94
CV SYSTEM
ARTERIOLE
smooth muscle
95
CV SYSTEM
CAPILLARIES
endothelial tube in thin basement membrane
no tunica media
no tunica externa
96
CV SYSTEM
what are the 3 types of capillary
continuous, fenestrated sinusoid
97
CV SYSTEM
CONTINUOUS CAPILLARY
where?
structure?
all tissues except epithelia + cartilage
complete endothelial lining
diffuse h20, small solute, lipid sol materials
98
CV SYSTEM
example of specialised continuous capillary
blood brain barrier in CNS
99
CV SYSTEM
FENESTRATED CAPILLARY
structure?
function?
where?
pore in endothelial lining
rapid exchange of h20 + large solutes
chloride plexus
endocrine organs
kidneys
intestinal tract
100
CV SYSTEM
SINUSOID
gap between adjacent endothelial cells
exchange h20 + large plasma proteins
in: liver, spleen , bone marrow, endocrine organs
101
CV SYSTEM
what cells monitor blood at sinusoids?
phagocytic cells
102
CV SYSTEM
capillary beds
aka _________ _____
capillary plexus
connect one arteriole + one venue
103
CV SYSTEM
pre capillary sphincter
guard entrance to capillary
open + closes , blood in pulses
104
CV SYSTEM
thoroughfare channels (capillary)
direct capillary connection from arteriole to venue
105
CV SYSTEM
3 types of vein
venule (small)
medium sized vein
large vein
106
CV SYSTEM
venue
tunica externa
endothelium
107
CV SYSTEM
medium sized veins
??????
108
CV SYSTEM
large veins
??????
109
CV SYSTEM
venous valves
folds in tunica intima
prevent back flow
110
CV SYSTEM
what structure helps veins get blood back to heart
skeletal muscle pump
111
CV SYSTEM
VEINS
blood from capillaries back to heart
large diameter, thin walls, lower bp
smooth muscle = autonomic , control blood flow + pressure
112
CV SYSTEM
blood flow
cardiac output
113
CV SYSTEM
pressure
pressure gradient
P = generated by heart to overcome resistance
pressure gradient = difference in P from one end of vessel to other
114
CV SYSTEM
flow (F) calculation
pressure gradient / resistance
115
CV SYSTEM
circulatory pressure must overcome _______ ____________ _______
what is this effected by (3)
total peripheral resistance
1.vascular resistance
2. blood viscosity
3. turbulence (swirling in chambers)
116
CV SYSTEM
what is vascular resistance
what is it effected by
friction between blood + vessel walls
vessel length / diameter
117
CV SYSTEM
as vessel diameter decreases what happens to R?
increases
118
CV SYSTEM
1) hypertension
2) hypotension
1) abnormally HIGH BP
2) abnormally LOW bp
119
CV SYSTEM
cardiovascular response to exercise (4)
increase HR
Increase Q
increase systolic BP
redistribution of blood flow
120
CV SYSTEM - regulate HR
1) parasympathetic nervous system ...
2) sympathetic nervous system...
1) slow HR, vagus nerve, inhibit SA/AV node
2) increase HR, stimulate SA/AV node, cardiac accelerator nerves
121
CV SYSTEM
why does HR initially increase at start of exercise
later increase because ...
parasympathetic withdrawal
increased SNS stimulation
122
CV SYSTEM
2 ways stroke volume changes
1) increase sympathetic nervous system
- circulate adrenaline/noradrenaline
2) increased end diastolic vol, increase stretch of sarcomeres, increase force of contraction
123
CV SYSTEM
what is : EDV
The Frank Starling Mechanism
"force of contraction is proportional to fibre length"
124
CV SYSTEM
cardiac output increases due to:
- increase hr
- increase sv
125
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
6 functions
ingestion
mechanical processing
digestion
secretion
absorption
excretion
126
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
subdivisions of digestive tract (6)
1) oral cavity, teeth, tongue
2) pharynx
3) oesophagus
4) stomach
5) small intestine
6) large intestine
127
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
accessory organs of digestive system (4)
1) salivary glands
2) liver
3) gallbladder
4) pancreas
128
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what is the peritoneum
serous membrane of abdominal cavity
129
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
2 components of peritoneum
SEROUS MEMBRANE
visceral layer = organs
parietal layer = cavities
PERITONEAL FLUID
lube for sliding
130
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
mesenteries
fold in membrane, attach intestine to stomach lining
expansion/contraction
suspend digestive tract
pass of blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels
131
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what does digestive tract protect against (3)
mechanical stresses
bacteria
digestive acids + enzymes
132
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
4 layers of digestive tract
mucosa
submucosa
muscular externa
serosa
133
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
digestive tract mucosa
inside
(3)
MUCOSA EPITHELIUM
strat. squam. epithet. in: oral cav, pharynx, oesophagus.
LAMINA PROPRIA
areolar tissue
MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE
inner circle layer/ outer longitudinal layer
134
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
digestive tract submucosa
- dense irregular connective tissue
- large blood vessels , lymphatic vessels
- exocrine glands , buffer and enzymes in tract
135
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what is the submucosal plexus
neural network between mucosa + submucosa
136
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
digestive tract muscular externa
movements coordinated by _____
smooth muscle cells
ENS enteric nervous system ,
innervated by parasympathetic div of ANS
137
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
digestive tract serosa
replaced by? where?
(outside)
serous membrane
replaced by adventitia (dense collagen fibre sheet) :
oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, rectum
138
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what cells control movement of food
pacesetter cells
139
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
3 stages of moving food
1. contract circular muscle behind bolus
2. contract longitudinal muscle ahead of bolus
3. contract circular muscle layer . force bolus forward
140
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
oral cavity functions
(6)
1. sensory analysis
2. mechanical processing
3. lubrication
4. limited digestion
5. passage for food liquid air
6. open to oropharynx
141
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
saliva functions (3)
lube mouth + food
dissolve chemicals
initiate digestion of complex carbs
142
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
salivary glands (3)
controlled by (2)
parotid
sublingual
submandibular
sympathetic, parasympathetic stimulation
143
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
4 phases of swallowing
1. buccal phase
2. pharyngeal phase
3. oesophageal phase
4. bolus enter stomach
144
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
oesophagus
layers (4)
move food/liquid to stomach
mucosa (inner)
submucosa
muscular externa
adventitia (outer)
145
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
stomach functions (4)
store ingested food
mechanical breakdown
chemical breakdown:
- by enzymes (pepsin = break protein)
- by acid (HCL reduce ph)
produce intrinsic factor (absorb b12)
146
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
stomach lining layer (5)
simple columnar epithelium (produce mucous)
gastric pits -- gastric glands (cells divide at bottom to replace damaged cells by e.g: acids )
submucosa
muscularis externa
serosa
147
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
3 components of muscular externa in stomach lining
oblique muscle
circular muscle
longitudinal muscle
148
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
where would you find gastric glands?
fundus and body of stomach
149
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
3 types of cells in gastric glands
PARIETAL CELLS
secrete intrinsic factor + HCL
CHIEF CELLS
secrete pepsinogen
covert to pepsin by HCL
G CELLS
secrete gastrin
150
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
where would you find PYLORIC GLANDS
pylorus, where stomach narrows
151
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
pyloric glands
what do they do?
what cells here?
produce mucous
G CELLS = secrete gastrin
D cells = release somatostatin (inhibit gastrin)
152
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
how do parietal cells secrete HCL
1)enzyme: carbonic anhydrase convert CO2 + H20 --- carbonic acid
dissociate -- = H- ions
2) countertransport mechanism:
eject bicarbonate atoms
import chloride ions
3) chloride ions diffuse across cell
exit: chloride channels into gastric gland lumen
4) H ions actively transported --- gastric gland lumen
153
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
mechanism help protect stomach from acid/protease (6)
mucous lining
rapid cell div
seperate secretion of H+, Cl- in parietal cell
secrete inactive precursor (pepsinogen)
stimulate secretion only when needed
inhibition of secretion
154
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
3 inhibitors of secretion
CCK
GIP
secretin
155
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
small intestine regions (3)
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
156
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
duodenum
proximal
receive pancreas + liver secretion
start digestion
small villi
25 cm
157
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
jejunum
large sa
chemical digestion
2.5m long
158
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
ileum
immune functions
3.5m long
159
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
villi
large sa
capillaries + lymphatic capillaries
Brush border of microvilli
160
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what is the scientific name for lymphatic capillary?
what do they do
lacteal
absorb fats
161
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what happens to cells in the intestinal gland?
divide at bottom, displaced at top of villi
disintegrate when add enzyme to lumen
162
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
brush border enzymes role
break materials in contact with brush border
enteropeptidase = activate trypsinogen (pancreatic proenzyme)
163
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
enteroendocrine cells
role
2 hormones examples
produce hormone
CCK + secretin: increase enzyme/bile secretion
GIP gastric inhibitory peptide: inhibit gastrin activity, slows stomach
164
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
duodenal glands role
produce mucus
increase pH
165
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
intestinal juice
moisten chyme
buffer acids
166
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what does pancreatic juice include
what breaks down:
1) cho
2) lipids/fats
3) nucleic acids
4) proteases/ peptidase
pancreatic enzymes:
1) alpha amylase
2) lipase
3) nucleases
4) old protein/peptide molecules
167
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - pancreas
endocrine cells secrete =
exocrine cells secrete =
ENDOCRINE = insulin + glucagon into blood
EXOCRINE = pancreatic juice
168
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
______ is one of the largest organs of the body, adjacent to stomach
liver
169
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
where does the liver get
1/3 of its blood
2/3 of its blood
1/3 = hepatic artery proper
2/3 = hepatic portal vein (came from many locations to here)
170
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - liver
what is a corner of a lobule called?
what do they contain?
portal area
branch of:
hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery proper, bile duct
171
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
name of liver cells
hepatocytes
172
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
what happens in lobules?
blood past hepatocytes = absorb solute, secrete protein --- sinusoids
bile --- bile ducts
173
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
liver metabolic functions (5)
metabolise cho, lipid, aa
remove waste
vitamin storage
mineral storage
drug inactivation
174
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
liver haematological regulation (3)
phagocytosis , antigen present
plasma proteins synthesis
remove hormone, antibodies, toxins
175
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
3 liver functions
metabolic regulation
haematological regulation
bile production
176
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
gallbladder bile transport pathway (5)
1) Liver secrete bile
2) Stored, concentrated in gallblader
3) Duodenal release CCK = hepatopancreatic sphincter relax , gallbladder contract
4) Bile ejected into duodenum
5) Bile salts break lipid droplets (emulsifcation)
177
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
where are cells that secrete digestive enzymes located?
pancreatic acini
178
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
function of large intestine (4)
ABSORPTION (water +. bile salts)
BACTERIAL VITAMIN PRODUCTION
COMPACT CONTENTS -- FAECES
STORE FAECES -- DEFAECATION
179
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
large intestine structure
no villi = smooth surface
mucous cells
muscular externa + thin strips of taeniae coli
180
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - neural control of intestine
1) LOCAL REFLEXES
2) CENTRAL CONTROL (2)
1) local response, stretch, ph change
2) PARASYMPATHETIC: increase motility/secretion
SYMPATHETIC: inhibit
181
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - neural control of intestine
name of reflex that:
1) stimulate motility + secretion along small intestine
2) open valve between small + large intestine
1) gastroenteric reflex
2) gastroileal reflex
182
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
GASTRIN
1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates ... :
1) food in stomach
2) increase acid production
stimulate Smooth muscle contract
183
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
GIP
1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates... :
1) chyme in duodenum = stretch
2) inhibit gastrin
stimulate insulin from pancreas
184
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
SECRETIN + CCK
1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates... :
1) chyme in duodenum
2) - release pancreatic enzyme + buffers
- bile secretion
185
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
VIP
1) stimulated by:
2) stimulates... :
1) chyme in duodenum
2) dilate intestine capillary = blood flow up to absorb food
186
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
name the 5 hormones produced by digestive system to increase food absorption
GASTRIN
GIP
CCK
SECRETIN
VIP
187
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
summarise how CARBOHYDRATES are broken down
1) salivary amylase, oral cavity
2) stomach: -- disaccharide, trisaccharides
3) small intestine: pancreatic alpha amylase
4) enzymes in brush border-- simple sugar
5) capillaries, through liver, bloodstream
188
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
summarise how LIPIDS are broken down
1) lingual lipase ,tongue
2) bile salt + pancreatic lipase (small intestine) ---- FA
3) FA diffuse in small intestine cells
4) packaged into chylomicrons ---- lacteals
189
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
summarise how PROTEINS are broken down
1) pepsin , stomach
2) pancreatic proteases , proteins -- AA
3) brush border enzymes --- single AA (absorb into capillaries)
4) filtered in liver
190
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
4 components of lymphatic system
lymphatic vessels
lymphoid tissues
lymph (fluid)
lymphatic cells
191
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what do lymphoid cells respond to (3)
environmental pathogens
toxins
abnormal body cells e.g: cancer
192
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
function of lymphatic system (3)
1) produce maintain spread lymphocytes
2) return fluid from peripheral tissue -- blood
3) distribute hormones nutrient waste from tissue to start of circulation
193
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
primary lymphatic organs (2)
thymus
red bone marrow
194
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
secondary lymphatic organs/tissues
spleen
lymph nodes
lymphoid nodules
195
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
lymphatic vessel
structure + function
between cells
capillaries join to form vessels
start as blind pockets
large diameter
thin walls
valves
196
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what 5 trunks form a lymph trunk
lumbar
intestinal
bronchomediastinal
subclavian
jugular
197
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2 types of lymphatic duct
right lymphatic duct (on top right hand side)
thoracic duct (anywhere else)
198
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
3 type of lymphocytes
T CELL (thymus dependent)
B CELL (bone marrow)
NK CELL (natural killer, bone marrow )
199
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
how are T cells produced
hemocytoblasts in bone marrow
--
lymphoid stem cells in THYMUS
--
T cells
200
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
how are B cells/ NK cells produced
Hemocytoblasts in bone marrow
--
lymphoid stem cells
--
B cells / NK cells
201
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
role of:
B cells
T cells
NK cells
B = antibody mediated immunity
T = cell mediated immunity
NK = immunological surveillance
202
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what happens at
EFFERENT + AFFERENT lymphatic vessel
E = clean lymph out
A = lymph fluid in
203
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what cells would you find in lymph node medulla (2)
where?
b cell
plasma cell
middle of node
204
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what cells would you find in lymph node inner cortex (1)
where?
t cell
above medulla
205
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what cells would you find around germinal centre of outer cortex (1)
where?
b cells
edge of the circles
206
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what cells would you find in germinal centre outer cortex (2)
where?
b cell
in circles
207
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
difference between lymphoid nodule + lymphoid organs
organs = have outer tissue
nodules = bundle of tissue with no capsule
208
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
formation of lymph journey (8)
- INTERSTITUAL FLUID
- LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
afferent vessel
- LYMPH NODES
efferent vessel
- LYMPHATIC VESSEL
- LYMPHATIC DUCT
- SUBCLAVIAN VEINS
209
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
order which lymph travels through node (5)
sub capsular sinus
outer cortex
deep cortex
medulla core
hilum / efferent lymphatics
210
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what is the role of a lymph node?
purified lymph before return to venous circulation
211
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
difference between
INNATE
ADAPTIVE
immune response
INNATE: non specific
ADAPTIVE: specific
212
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
non specific immunity
from birth
no memory
block/attack pathogen
213
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
specific immunity
identify, attack, develop immunity to antigen
response to antigen
214
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
7 types of non specific defence
1. physical barriers
2. phagocytic cells
3. NK cells
4. Interferons (antiviral)
5. complement system
6. inflammation
7. fever
215
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
5 'categories'/locations of physical barriers
eyes
respiratory tract
skin
digestive tract
genitourinary tract
216
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
summarise phagocytosis and how antigen presentation occurs
1) APC/phagocyte engulfs pathogen
2) lysosome fuse to pathogen.
3) acidic + lysozyme breaks down pathogen cell wall
4) endoplasmic rect. produce MHC class II -- bind to lysosome
5) move antigen parts to surface + present antigen = APC
217
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2 types of phagocytes
MACROPHAGE
MICROPHAGE
218
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
macrophage
eosinophils + neutrophils
leave blood stream to fight infection
219
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
microphage
fixed or free
make moncyte-macrophage system
large, derived from monocytes
220
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
3 ways macrophage respond to pathogen
engulf
bind
destroy
221
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
how do NK cells defend (4)
1) recognise pathogen and bind
2) Golgi apparatus line up
3) release perforin
4) perforin forms pore on pathogen and release enzyme to break target cell
222
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
how do interferons defend
what type of response to they have?
non specific
cytokines released by activated lymphocytes/macrophages
223
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
3 types of interferons
1) alpha-interferons
stimulate NK cells
2) beta-interferons
slow inflammation
3) gamma interferons
stimulate macrophage
224
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
summarise the complement system
2 pathways:
classical (fast)
alternative (slow)
chain reaction which converts inactive protein to active protein
form pore on bacteria cell wall to destroy
225
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
4 effects of complement activation
attract phagocytes
enhance phagocytosis
stimulate inflammation
destroy target cell membrane
226
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
how does inflammation cause tissue repair (6)
1) increase blood flow
2) phagocytes move to site
3) remove debris
4) clot
5)activate fibrinogen
6) tissue repair
227
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2 types of specific immunity
CELL MEDIATED - against intracellular pathogen
HUMORAL - against extracellular pathogen
228
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
summarise the humoral response
1) red bone marrow -- mature b cell
2) b cell -- plasma cell + memory cell
3) b cell = produce antibodies
4) antibodies bind to antigen and inactivate
229
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
summarise the cell mediated response
1) thymus -- T cells
2) T cells -- killer T cells (CD8 protein)
or
helper T cells (CD4)
3)helper cells activated
4) these activate killer T cells --- cytotoxic T cells
5) activated cytotoxic T cells invade antigens
230
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
what 3 cells make memory cells
b cells
cytotoxic T cells
helper T cells
231
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
specific immunity is driven by ________, ________, ___________
memory
tolerance
specificity
232
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
2 types of MHC proteins and where they are presented
CLASS 1: nucleated cells
CLASS 2: APCs, lymphocytes
233
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
summarise antigen presentation (5)
1) APC/phagocyte engulfs pathogen
2) lysosome fuse to pathogen.
3) acidic + lysozyme breaks down pathogen cell wall
4) endoplasmic rect. produce MHC class II -- bind to lysosome
5) move antigen parts to surface + present antigen = APC
234
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
summarise antigen expression
1) e.g: virus infects
2) unusual peptides chopped up and presented on cell surface
3) by MHC class I
235
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
3 types of T cells and their roles
1) CYTOTOXIC :
cell mediated immunity, destroy virally infected cells
2) HELPER:
stimulate t/b cell function
3) SURPRESSOR (regulatory):
inhibit t/b cell function
236
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
CD_ T cells recognised on MHC class I
CD_ T cells recognised on MHC class II
8
4 (as divide 4/2 = 2)
237
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
5 types of antibodies
IgG (80% of antibodies, from mum)
IgA (glandular secretions)
IgM
IgD
IgE
238
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
4 problems with the Immune system
1) allergy
2) autoimmune disease: attacks own tissue
3) transplant rejection
4) disease of immune system (primary/secondary)
239
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what does it regulate (3)
growth
development
reproduction
240
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what does it consist of (2)
hormones
glands
241
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
4 glands
hypothalamus
pituitary
pineal
parathyroid
242
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what does: hypothalamus produce
regulatory hormones
243
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what does pituitary gland produce
244
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what does pineal gland produce
melatonin ,
maintain circadium rhythms
245
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what does parathyroid gland produce
PTH (para thyroid hormone)
246
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
where are adrenal glands located
what do they secrete in which part
top of kidney
medulla: adrenaline + noradrenaline
247
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what do pancreatic islets do
control blood sugar levels
insulin, glucagon
248
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
role of endocrine system
communication between blood stream with hormones
249
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
when is the only time a hormone will work
when it reaches target cell with receptor
250
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
3 types of hormones
AA derivatives
peptide hormones
lipid derivatives
251
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
AA derivative hormones
small
similar structure to AA
1/2 lipid sol, 1/2 water sol
252
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
peptide hormones
chains of AA
largest class of hormones
water sol
253
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
lipid derivatives
steroid - lipid sol
eicosanoids - water sol
254
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
2 location of receptors
ON CELL: G protein -- second signals
INSIDE CELL: for lipid sol hormones
255
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
how is cAMP activated (4)
1) hormone bind to receptor, activate G protein -- activate enzyme: ADENYLATE CYCLASE
2) this contest ATP - cAMP
3) cAMP activate kinase enzymes
4) kinases effected target cell
256
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
example how same hormone may have different effect
hormone may breakdown cAMP instead of stimulate it
257
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
steroid hormone process (6)
1) diffuse through membrane lipids
2) hormone bind to receptor in cytoplasm/nucleus
3) hormone-receptor complex bind to DNA
4) gene activation
5) transcription + mRNA production
6) translation + protein synthesis
258
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what's the difference between thyroid + steroid hormone action
THYROID has mitochondria receptors -- increases atp production
259
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
how are free hormones V steroid/thyroid hormones
regulated
FREE = broken down liver, kidney, plasma enzymes
THYROID/STEROID = remain in blood stream
260
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
HYPOTHALAMUS location + role
between nervous + endocrine systems
regulatory hormones
effect pituitary function
261
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PITUITARY GLAND locations + role
next to hypothalamus
ANTERIOR = hormones control other endocrine glands
POSTERIOR = oxytocin + ADH release
262
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - hypothalamus
production of ADH + oxytocin causes ....
release of ADH (anti diuretic) + oxytocin (lactation)
through dendrites
release from posterior pituitary
263
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - hypothalamus
release of regulatory hormones act on...... to
endocrine cells of anterior pituitary
secrete hormones through blood to control other endocrine organs
264
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
what stimulates secretion of catecholamines
preganglionic motor fibres from hypothalamus to adrenal gland
265
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
name of joining between hypothalamus and pituitary gland
infundibulum
266
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - pituitary gland
located where?
tissue in anterior + posterior
name of structure between
located in sphenoid bone hollow
posterior - neural tissue
anterior - endocrine tissue
pars intermedia
267
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - pituitary gland
what does .... secrete?
1) anterior
2) pars intermedia
3) posterior
1) pituitary hormones
2) MSH
3) ADH, oxytocin
268
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
regulatory factors journey from hypothalamus to pituitary (4)
1) neurosecretory neurones @ median eminence
2) fenestrated capillary in beds in hypothalamus
3) portal veins
4) capillary bed in anterior pituitary
