BIOL 329 Flashcards
(665 cards)
1
Q
distinguishing a risso dolphin
A
scars, whiten with age, tall dark sickle-shaped (crescent moon) fin, rounded head
2
Q
distinguishing grizzly bear from brown black bear
A
grizzlies have hump on back - enlargement of shoulder blade bones for larger muscles attachment - lots of digging, forehead to nose is more concave
3
Q
distinguish sea otter
A
much bigger than river otter, flat tail, dense fur, swim in groups, front paw, back flippers, rarely come on land
4
Q
number of tetrapod species
A
~32,000
5
Q
tetrapods
A
Amphibia
Reptile
Aves
Mammalia
6
Q
defining tetrapod feature
A
legs
7
Q
defining lizard, bird, mammal feature
A
lungs
8
Q
defining reptilia, aves feature
A
scales
9
Q
defining aves feature
A
feathers, wings
10
Q
defining mammal feature
A
hair, mammary glands
11
Q
World Wildlife Fund classification of BC
A
globally outstanding ecoregion
12
Q
BC size (geographically)
A
Bigger than any European country except Russia and any US state except Alaska
13
Q
BC fauna diversity
A
More vertebrate species than any other province or territory in Canada
14
Q
BC amphibia species
A
~20
43 in Canada
~7000 worldwide
15
Q
BC reptile species
A
~20
51 in Canada
~9600 worldwide
16
Q
BC bird species
A
~530
615 in Canada
~10,000 worldwide
17
Q
BC mammals
A
~150
207 in Canada
~5500 worldwide
18
Q
BC plants
A
3150 species
richest flora in Canada
19
Q
why does BC have such rich flora/fauna
A
very diverse biogeoclimatic zones
20
Q
levels of threat and extinction graph
A
years (increasing up y axis), vs. probability of extinction (0 -1 increasing down x axis)
safe line is straight with high slope, vulnerable has small curve and pretty high slope, endangered has big curve extending along x axis
21
Q
levels of threat and extinction
A
safe: 0.1P in 100y
vulnerable: 0.2P in 20y
Endangered: 0.5P in 10y
Critically endangered: >0.5 in 10
22
Q
mammals vs. reserve size graph
A
of individuals vs. area
min. population size is a horizontal line
small herbivores, large herbivores, large carnivores are subsequent diagonal lines
where the lines cross is minimum area required to sustain animal population
23
Q
minimum population size to survive
A
~2500
24
Q
minimum reserve area for small herbivores
A
10km^2
25
minimum reserve area for large herbivores
~5000 km^2
26
minimum reserve area for large carnivores
>100,000 km^2 --- doesn't exist
27
species listing categories
```
extinct
extirpated
endangered
threatened
vulnerable
```
28
extinct species listing
species no longer exists on the planet
29
extinct examples (BC)
```
Steller's sea cow
Dawson Caribou (1915)
```
30
extirpated species listing
species no longer exists in the region but still exists in other geographical areas
31
extirpated examples (BC)
```
Pygmy Horned Lizard
Sea otter (has been reintroduced)
```
32
sea otter extirpation and relocation in BC
hunted to extinction for furs
| relocated when US was doing weapons testing
33
Endangered species listing
facing imminent extirpation or extinction
34
BC endangered species
Tiger salamander
Keen's long-eared Myotis
North Pacific Right Whale
35
Threatened species listing
a species likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed
36
BC threatened species
Vancouver Island Marmot
37
vulnerable species listing
a species that is particularly at risk because of low or declining population
have features that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events
38
BC vulnerable species
coastal giant salamander
bighorn sheep
spotted owl
39
peripheral species
a species that barely extends into the are of political jurisdiction (what are our responsibilities in protecting these species? what if they are peripheral everywhere they live? who will protect them?)
40
peripheral species example
Northern Leopard frog
41
Alien species
a species that has been introduced by humans and are not part of our historic wildlife heritage
also exotic/introduced species
42
example BC alien species
rat
bullfrog
starling
43
red-listed species
extirpated, endangered, threatened species listings
44
blue-listed species
vulnerable species listings
45
VI wolves
hybridized with dogs
| shows how small populations are at risk of hybridization - low mate selection
46
SARA
Species at Risk Act (2004)
prohibits killing, harming, harassing, capturing, or taking of species listed under SARA as threatened, endangered, or extirpated
47
red and blue species coincide with
geoclimatic zone habitat loss
48
number of endangered or threatened tetrapod species in BC
~195
49
yellow-listed species
"secure"
50
COSEWIC
Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (national)
51
542 million years ago
end of the PreCambrian
Start of the Palaeozoic
Start of the Cambrian
52
250 million years ago
end of the Palaeozoic
Start of the Mesozoic
start of the Triassic period
53
65 million years ago
end of the Mesozoic (end of Cretaceous)
start of Cenozoic
start of Tertiary
54
Devonian
age of fish
transition to land
first tetrapods
55
major tetrapod diversification
mid paleozoic
56
largest extinction
P-T extinction (250mya)
more than 90% of species extinct, 60% of families
mammal-like groups get knocked back
reptiles undergo large diversification
57
continents 200mya
SA, Africa, India, antartica are together at the south pole - Gondwana
58
first reptiles
Carboniferous (~350mya)
59
continental changes
Pangaea supercontinent up to P-T boundary
Around Triassic period - Gondwana in S, Laurasia in N
Cretaceous - split into modern continents
60
separation of continents aids in
diversification (new niches?)
61
Amniotes
reptiles, birds, mammals
| land sustainable egg
62
2 Amniote lineages
synapsida
| diapsida
63
synapsids
mammals
| 1 hole at back of skull (plus eye hole like anapsid)
64
diapsids
reptiles, birds
"dual window" skull
skull fenestra, 2 holes on top of each other at back of skull
65
origin of tetrapods species
Tiktaalik
Acanthostega
Icthyostega
66
Tiktaalik
```
recent discovery (2004, Nunavut)
ventral ridge oblique - transverse
enlargement of muscle attachment points from shoulder - forearm and forearm - radius and ulna
still look quite aquatic, kind of alligator looking- long snout
```
67
Acanthostega
origin of digits
enlargement of hind limbs and pelvic girdle
interarticulation between vertebrae
still has pretty aquatic looking body - flat, side splayed limbs, flat shorter head
68
Ichthyostega
elongation of limb long bones
changes to shoulder girdle
looks like its off the ground a little more, a little less flat
69
why are tetrapods thought to have arisen in the early Devonian
from molecular data
| times of high oxygen levels
70
developmental plasticity
genetic variability + phenotypic plasticity
| different growth patterns dependent on outside factors
71
fish egg
simplest; nucleus + yolk granules; surrounded by membrane, requires aquatic habitat
72
amphibian egg
same as fish egg except that it also has a jelly coat made of gooey protein solution so that it can survive in wet environment
73
amniotic egg
much more complex; shell, albumin, chorion, allantois, yolk sac, amnion; does not require aquatic habitat
74
mammal egg
placenta = specialized amniotic egg; allantois and yolk sac become umbilical cord
75
chorion function
gas exchange
76
allantois function
storage for nitrogenous wastes and O2 transport
77
albumin
physical protection and reservoir of water and protein
78
amniote skin
usually waterproof with keratinized epidermis
| scales, hair, feathers
79
amniote ventilation
costal ventilation- lungs/diaphragm (vs. amphibian skin breathing)
80
tetrapod heart evolution
amphibian - 3 chambered (2 atria, 1 ventricle)
some reptiles- partial septum in ventricle for some separation of oxy-deoxy
crocodile, bird, mammal- 4 chambered, oxy-deoxy are separated
81
why separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
more efficient
| increased regulation of Tb
82
ectotherms
amphibians and most reptiles
83
ectotherm habitat
most prevalent in tropics with high evapotranspiration (Warm and wet)
84
ectotherm genome
more complex, need complex enzyme systems to function t different T's, highly variable Tb over time
85
ectotherm activity
generally inactive at night
86
endotherms
birds, mammals, some dinosaurs, some marine reptiles
87
mammal Tb
~37-40ºC
88
facilitate endothermy
feathers, hair, fat, cellular metabolism, counter-current heat exchange
89
why endothermy?
```
active at all latitudes, seasons, time of day
pathogen resistance
higher capacity for sustained activity
higher digestion rate
control incubation T
parental care
```
90
poikilothermy
A poikilotherm is an organism whose internal temperature varies considerably
ectothermy
91
homeothermy
the maintenance of a constant body temperature despite changes in the environmental temperature
endothermy
92
inertial homeothermy
large bodied ectotherms that warm-up and then 'hold it' to maintain their body temperature above ambient temperature
93
metabolic rate and body mass in tetrapods
tightly positively correlated
| however, ectotherms are significantly lower in metabolic needs, and body size can be much smaller
94
body size in ecto and endotherms
majority of salamanders vs. mammals/birds are nearly entirely outside of each other's ranges- amphibians can't get as big, mammals can't get as small
95
why endotherms are generally bigger
smaller animals have higher SA:V - lose more heat
| also better for endotherms to be rounded
96
minimum bird/mammal size
~2-3g
| salamanders ~0.1g
97
biomass conversion efficiency (equation)
(energy converted/energy assimilated) x 100
98
biomass conversion efficiencies in tetrapods
ectotherms ~50% (6-98)
| endotherms ~1.5% (0.5-3.0)
99
plesiomorphic
ancestral, primitive
100
endotherm biomass conversion efficiency
1.5% -- >95% of everything we consume goes to heat -- only beneficial in cold climate or nighttime foraging otherwise at a disadvantage compared to ectotherms
101
anapsid jaw bones
basal, no fenestra, very limited muscle attachment and jaw movement
102
synapsid
simple fenestra system, little more muscle attachment and jaw movement
103
diapsid
tuatara, t-rex, 2 fenestra, tremendous horizontal jaw movement control
104
tetrapod limb transitions
amphibians/many lizards- legs horizontal/lateral/splayed to side, body on ground, inefficient model
derived reptiles- limbs vertical/ventral/underneath body, allow bones of pelvic girdle to support body and legs to be used for forward motion
105
therapsids
gave rise to mammals
| somewhere around the P-T boundary
106
advanced mammal diversification
around the Cretaceous - Tertiary
107
Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction (K-T)
```
over a million years of continuous volcanism (deccan trap)
then a meteorite struck
~20% of families
dinosaurs
65Ma
```
108
rise of the fish occurs when what is happening
global T's are plummeting (end Devonian)
109
P-T extinction occurs when what is happening
global T's are rising majorly
Oxygen levels re dropping (down to ~12% of todays)
siberian traps (volcanism)
abrupt ocean acidification (massive CO2 injection to atmos.)
widespread wildfires
low O2 advantageous for endotherms
110
amphibians common starting in
paleozoic
111
amphibians diversify in
Permian
112
ancient amphibians
some similarity to modern salamander, lizards, snakes
mainly aquatic juveniles, terrestrial adults
all fossils have spool-shaped vertebra, solid skull
113
amphibian evolutionary record shows
numerous reverse evolutions back to aquatic habitat for adults
repeated loss of 'tetrapod' limbs for burrowing and full aquatic life
114
amphibian fossil record completion
gap after permian until jurassic
| 3 groups of modern amphibians occur from Permian
115
all modern amphibians, 3 living groups
lissamphibia: anurans, urodela, caecilians
116
anurans
"no-tail"
| frogs
117
Urodela
"tailed"
| salamander
118
Caecilian
"blind", legless, burrowing, tropical
| limbless, serpentine amphibians
119
meaning of amphibian
amphi - biphasic life cycle (aquatic-terrestrial)
| most species dependent on temporary or permanent aquatic habatats
120
BC Amphibians
11 species
| 2 invasives
121
origin of extant amphibians
Late Carboniferous, around 315 Mya
122
divergence between frogs and salamanders
Early Permian, around 290 Mya
123
length of typical frog life cycle
```
3 years
first egg cleavage 3-12hours
embryo has tail bud 4 days
hatches 6 days
tadpole feeding on larvae 7 days
limbs, lungs 75+ days
tail shortens, functional lungs 90+ days
juvenile for 1-2 years
sexually mature 3 years
```
124
metamorphisis triggered by
thyroxine (pituitary gland)
125
additional effects during metamorphosis
tail muscles, gill arches, gills and operculum are reabsorbed and reincorporated in to other muscles
lung/eye/brain development
inner ear for hearing
126
why do frogs have specialized hearing for very low sounds
because they live close to the ground
127
why do frogs eyes bulge
enlarge buccal cavity - increase 'mouth' volume so they can fit more in
128
predation by snakes during frog metamorphosis
tadpoles 33%
transforming tadpoles 67%
transforming adults 90% (moving closer to shore?)
fully metamorphosed adults 45%
129
tadpole gas exchange
gills and skin
| highly permeable skin densely covered in mucous glands
130
adult frog gas exchange
gills, lungs, cutaneous respiration, depending on extent of metamorphosis
terrestrial, arid, highly active species use primarily lungs
131
tadpole/frog mucous glands secrete
mucopolysaccharides (maintain mostness, permeability)
132
If tadpole/frog does not maintain moisture/mucous
overheat
133
amphibian drinking
ABSORB through 'pelvic patch' (highly vascularized skin patch)
urea in skin facilitates water absorption from moist surface
134
amphibian over-hydration
can easily over-hydrate and die
| may have to lift themselves off the ground on to all 4 limbs to dehydrate
135
how to amphibians occupy dry habitat
behavioural adaptations: nocturnal, remain underground in dry season, forage only on rainy days, rest under leaves, ru mucopolysaccharides all over skin
136
frog defense
camouflage, aposematic
mucous
parotid glands
137
Aposematic coloration
warning signs, frogs with warning colours have particularly bad toxins in their skin (poison dart frogs), some frogs mimic these colours
138
Frog mucous as defense
antibiotic and reduce handling success of predators
139
Parotid glands
poison glands
| repository for waste/toxins/junk - sometimes these compounds come from their diet and are stored there
140
compounds found in parotid glands
hemolytic proteins
epibatidine (neurotransmitter blocker)
tetrodotoxin (lethal)
neurotoxins
141
neurotoxins in poison dart frogs
alkaloids acquired from eating ants
| ants obtain from fungus and vegetation
142
amphibian skin secretions as medicine
toxins, antimicrobial peptides, opioids, steroids, alkaloids
these compounds show cytotoxic, antimicrobial, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral activities (including anti-HIV). and easily obtainable
143
TTX
tetrodotoxin, only in amphibians, anti predator defense, unknown origin
144
frog foraging
tadpoles - herbivory
adults - carnivore
some carnivorous tadpoles
145
frog foraging, eyes
binocular vision for active capture or prey, including insects in flight
146
frog foraging, mouth
specialized tongue protrusion, folds out, releases from back
large mouth for swallowing large prey
reduced intestine
147
fossil of species similar to frog compared to present
modern- much less vertebrae, elongated pelvic girdle, longer hind limbs and toes
148
why the changes in present frog form
jumping (more muscle attachment)
149
when frogs jump their limbs
are all extended to increase lift
150
using limb length we can tell
life history, predict habitat
151
long forelimb, short hindlimb
walker-hopper
152
short forelimb, short hindlimb
walker-hopper-burrower (fat)
153
long forelimb, long hindlimb
jumper, walker-jumper
154
short forelimb, long hindlimb
swimmer, hopper
155
global amphibian species
```
7022
2500 declining
1800 threatened
168 extinct
under the most threat of all tetrapods on the planet
```
156
BC Anurans (11species +2 alien)
rocky mountain tailed frog, coastal tailed frog, pacific treefrog, boreal chorus frog, red-legged frog, bullfrog, green frog, columbian spotted frog, northern leopard frog, oregon spotted frog, wood frog, western toad, great basin spadefoot toad
157
Western Toad scientific name
Anaxyrus (Bufo) boreas
158
Western toad distribution
```
sea level - 2200 m (Mt. top)
wet forest - grassland
majority of BC except NE corner
terrestrial adult (adapted to dry, prefer moist), aquatic reproduction
very large distribution - opportunistic
```
159
Western toad oddities
```
primarily nocturnal (at low elevation)
~silent during reproduction
often walk, not hop
winter hibernation nov-april, 1m depth
can't breathe under water
```
160
Western toad reproduction
black pearl egg strands
hatch within several weeks
tadpoles develop over summer
metamorphose late summer
161
Western toad listing
formerly widespread, major population reduction from raccoon predation (alien)
endangered in S US
IUCN red-listed
162
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
163
Western Toad longevity
up to 10 years
164
core habitat
necessary habitat for survival
165
hibernacula
```
place of refuge for hibernation
often communal (68% of western toads)
```
166
Why western toad may not be adequately protected
protection traditionally at "vegetated buffers" (riparian zone) but 80-90% of hibernacula were beyond buffer zone
167
Western toad migration
migrate to communal breeding site April-July
150-2000m
90,000 body lengths!
168
Columbia Spotted Frog scientific name
Rana luteiventris
169
columbia spotted frog distribution
900-2200m
core habitat = constant water body
diverse habitat (wet forest, sage bushland, alpine tundra)
most of BC, not NE corner or West coast
170
columbia spotted frog oddities
overwinter at bottom of water bodies that don't freeze
tadpole can last >1yr
opportunistic feeder
majority of time in water
171
columbia spotted frog feeding
aquatic/terrestrial inverts. (snails, insects, crustaceans, spiders)
20 orders of inverts., 20% beetles, 20% ants/wasps, 10% flies
172
columbia spotted frog breeding
```
migrate between water bodies for breeding
egg masses laid in shallow water
tadpole can be >1yr
mature in 2-3yrs
longevity up to 10yrs
```
173
Oregon spotted frog
sub population w/ slightly different call - diversified group? do not interbreed
174
spectral habitat evaluation
spectral distribution can make habitat quantifiable - how much grass is there? tree canopy? dry, yellow, grass?
175
spectral habitat evaluation output
hyperspectral cube
| each pixel contains 'pages' of every different wavelength
176
hyperspectral data collection
fly over with imaging spectrometer - emit dispersed spectrum, light passes through focusing lenses and collimating slit to diffraction grating, produce data cube
177
wood frog scientific name
Rana sylvatica
178
wood frog distribution
most of BC, not W coast or S end - well adapted to cold (N BC)
most of Canada
largely terrestrial, close to water (marshes, riparian, wet grass)
179
wood frog oddities
short tadpole stage
winter in root spaces
freeze solid
180
wood frog breeding
tadpole - several months
adult in 2 yrs
max life 3-4 years
181
wood frog freezing
genes in muscle metabolic pathway shut down
liver tissue remain active
up-regulate ribosomal protein
increase urea level to increase plasma osmolality (H2O leaves cell into interstitial space)
reduce ice crystal development - dehydration
182
Coastal tailed frog scientific name
Ascaphus truei
183
Coastal tailed frog distribution
only slim band on W coast, not the islands
| clear, cold, very fast streams
184
coastal tailed frog oddities
```
no vocal sac
no eardrum
more vertebra than other frogs
closely related to 'living fossil'
tadpoles up to 4years
can't flip tongue
tail only in males
one of longest living
females store sperm
```
185
coastal tailed frog breeding
tail is copulatory organ - only NA frog w/ internal fertilization
f/m stores sperm from late summer -overwinter, allows fertilization in spring
eggs attached to downstream side of rock
tadpoles stay in stream up to 4 years before metamorph
186
why coastal tail frog has no eardrum
no vocalization, don't need it - probably partly because of extremely fast flowing water habitat
187
coastal tail frog life span
15-20 years, highly unusual
| one of longest living frogs
188
coastal tail frog closest relation
ancient NZ frog (Leiopelmatidae) which is indistinguishable from 150mya - considered 'living fossil'
189
coastal tail frog diet
tadpole- algae, inverts
adults - insects, snails
adults must jump on prey - no tongue flip
190
high vocalization
requires higher O2 than high levels of locomotion
O2 doubles with doubling of call length
major physiological cost to calling
191
why spend energy for vocalization
longer calls made when other males are calling nearby
| females prefer longer calls
192
pacific tree frog scientific name
Pseudacris (Hyla) regilla
193
largest family of amphibians
Hylidae
194
pacific tree frog habitat/distribution
S BC, including V. Isl, down to CA
on ground, among shrubs, gross, close to water
sea level to >3000m
195
pacific tree frog breeding
```
use ephemeral ponds
breed Jan - Aug
eggs attach to vegetation
eggs hatch in 3 weeks
tadpoles metamorph. in 2 months
```
196
ephemeral
short lasting, not constant, transient
197
pacific treefrog oddities
```
tremendous dexterity
can't live in lakes - susceptible to predation by fish
camouflage/bright pigment
introduced on H.G.
active day & night
```
198
BC anurans
```
Western Toad
Columbia Spotted Frog
Wood Frog
Coastal Tailed frog
Pacific Treefrog
Boreal Chorus frog
Red-legged frog
Great Basin Spadefoot toad
leopard frog
american bullfrog
green frog
```
199
Boreal Chorus frog scientific name
Pseudacris maculata
200
Boreal Chorus frog distribution
NE corner of BC, Middle - East side of NA (north = cold)
| adults fully terrestrial, near water
201
boreal chorus frog reproduction
tadpole metamorphose in 2 months
| adults live 2 years
202
boreal chorus frog oddity
smallest BC frog
freezes in winter
highly vocal
203
boreal chorus frog cold adaptation
freezes overwinter in dry habitat- sugar in cells, intercellular spaces freeze
can't freeze as cold as others
resume activity upon thawing in spring
204
Red-legged frog scientific name
Rana aurora
205
red-legged frog distribution
NW corner - only sunshine coast, VI
| wet coastal forest, adults terrestrial
206
red-legged frog breeding
shaded streams/ponds Jan-March
adult males make breeding calls underwater
tadpoles 4-5months before metamorph.
207
great basin spadefoot toad distribution
small patch in S BC ~mid
| dry forest/sagebrush flat
208
great basin spadefoot breeding
april-july, following heavy rains
utilize springs/slow-moving water, temporary pools- takes advantage of moisture when available - breeds immediately - ephemeral reproduction
209
great basin spadefoot oddities
ephemeral, immediate reproduction
digs burrows with spade foot
primarily nocturnal
adults hibernate or aestivate for up to 8months (winter or dry times)
210
aestivation
similar to hibernation, inactivity and lowered metabolic rate, entered in response to high T and arid conditions
211
leopard frog scientific name
Rana pipiens
212
leopard frog distribution
```
one of most widely distributed in NA
possible on VI?
not in rest of BC
mid- southern ends of E Canada
damp meadows
```
213
leopard frog oddities
```
opportunistic feeders (anything moving)
overwinter @ bottom of ponds/rivers that don't freeze
major continent wide collapses
```
214
leopard frog collaps
since 1960's
| multifactorial: roadkill, herbicides, toxins, habitat, dams, fungus, alien predaters
215
American Bullfrog scientific name
Rana catesbeiana (alien)
216
American bullfrog distribution
very SW tip of mainland, and SE coast of VI
LITTLE bit in S: ON, QC, maritimes
historically one of most abundant/widespread in NA
recently introduce in W NA, Europe, SA, Australia
217
American bullfrog breeding
reproduce in vegetation-clogged ponds
218
American bullfrog feeding
tadpole - herbivorous
| adults - opportunistic - sunsets, fish, snakes, ducklings, other frogs - up to 0.75kg
219
American bullfrog invasive
displaced other frogs from lower mainland and E VI
| spreads chytrid fungus
220
american bullfrog oddities
can jump 2m
much deeper call (big size)
not very susceptible to chytrid fungus'
adults extremely opportunistic
221
chytrid fungus
Batrachochyrium dendrobatidis
causes fungal skin infection
lethal to other amphibians
222
Green (bronze) frog scientific name
Rana clamitans alien
223
green frog distribution
very very SW tip of mainland, very very SE tip of VI
SE end of Canada - huge distribution jump (introduced)
primarily aquatic, permanent water bodies, do not migrate
224
green frog wintering
ponds or underground
225
green frog breeding
tadpoles active throughout year
226
Anura sister species
Urodela
227
Urodela
salamanders
228
Anura, Urodela origin (time period)
Permian
| ~300 may
229
salamander life cycle
```
similar to frog but more complex
complex and variable mating
egg mass laid in water
aquatic larva (external gills)
terrestrial adult OR
gilled adult (neoteny/paedmorphosis)
```
230
some salamander life cycle oddities
spermatophore and internal fertilization in derived groups
european salamander - live birth
paedomorphosis
231
most terrestrial salamander
European Plethodon - lost lungs, use cutaneous respiration, no aquatic larval stage
232
salamander size
usually 5-10cm
| up to 100cm
233
BC salamanders
```
Northwestern (Coast, Mts, GD)
Long-toed (Coast, Mts, GD, interior)
Tiger (Southern interior)
Coastal Giant (georgia depression)
Wandering (coast, Mts)
Coeur d'Alene (S Interior, Mts)
Western Redback (Coast, Mts, Georgia depression, S Interior)
Ensatina (Coast, Mts, GD)
Roughskin Newt (Coast, Mts, GD)
```
234
Long-toad salamander scientific name
Ambystoma macrodactylum
235
long-toad salamander distribution
most of BC, not Northern edge
sea level - 2800m
diversity of habitats - con. forest, mts, sagebrush- close to water
2nd most divers salamander in NA
236
long-toed salamander breeding
```
in small ponds
male drops spermatophore
f/m picks up with cloaca
eggs/larvae develop 4months
carnivorous larvae, ~1yr
metamoph. in autumn, leave ponds
```
237
long-toed salamander odditites
overwinter on land, beneath frost line
adults produce toxins in tail
usually nocturnal
238
long-toed salamander feeding
insects, zooplankton, small fish, worms, tadpoles
239
northwestern salamander scientific name
Ambystoma gracile
240
northwestern salamander distribution
East coast BC down to CA
all of VI
moist coastal forests, grasslands
241
NW salamander breeding
larvae hatch 2-4 weeks (16mm)
| metamorph. 1-2 years (80mm)
242
NW salamander oddities
neotenic adults common
different life histories at elevations
terrestrial mainly fossorial except during rain
243
NW salamander elevation vs. development
high elevation - population completely neotenic
| low elevation and S populations - have non-gilled terrestrial adults
244
fossorial
adapted to digging and life underground such as the badger
245
rough skinned newt scientific name
Taricha granulosa
246
lateral line
system of sense organs found in fish, salamanders, used to detect movement and vibration in the surrounding water
247
Rough skinned newt distribution
W coast BC, down to CA, all of VI, same as NW salamander
| moist forests, under logs
248
rough skinned newt breeding
in spring, shallow water, larvae in autumn, adults move to forest, return in 2 years
male drop sperm packet, female collects
249
rough skinned newt oddities
live for up to 12 years
carnivorous larval and adult
most toxic of BC salamanders
only salamander active in day
250
rough skinned newt feeding
insects, slugs, earthworms, other amphibians
251
rough skinned newt toxin
tetrodotoxin -damage Na channels in cell, causes paralysis and death
displays by flipping head&tail
3% of skin can kill adult human
garter snakes (major predator) resistant to toxin
252
Western Redback Salamander scientific name
Plethodon vehiculum
253
western redneck salamander distribution
SW BC down to Oregon, all of VI
Douglas fir
one of few to utilize young forests (2nd growth)
mostly associated with rocky habitat
underneath bark, stones, debris, decaying wood
254
western redneck salamander breedings
eggs- individual, clumps, parental care
255
wandering salamander scientific name
Andes vagrans
256
wandering salamander distribution
VI, isolated habitat SW Oregon (imported?)
old-growth
fully terrestrial, somewhat arboreal
under decaying wood
257
wandering salamander breeding
8-17 eggs singly on roof or side of log cavity or under bark, suspended separately on mucus stalks
females guard eggs
eggs hatch fall-early winter
258
wandering salamander oddities
alien from cali oak bark imports ~1850s
previously misclassified as Cloudy salamander
specialist
259
coastal giant salamander scientific name
Dicamptodon tenebrosus
260
coastal giant salamander distribution
very tiny distribution S mainland, W coast US to CA
coastal forest near fast mt stream
sea level - 2000m
261
coastal giant salamander breeding
larval stages remain in stream >1yr
adult stage moves to terrestrial habitat
long lived ~25yrs
some stay in stream and retain gills (neoteny)
262
coastal giant salamander oddities
neotenic adult 2X size of terrestrial (30cm vs. 15cm)
one of largest in NA
long lived
263
largest infection disease threat to amphibian biodiversity
Bd
Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
few geographic-host limitations = widespread
decline and extinction>200 species worldwide
264
killing populations?
many factors. contaminants everywhere. systems weakened, pathogens gaining foothold.
265
second Chytridiomycota pathogen
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans causing lethal skin infections in salamanders
266
pregnancy leading to Bd outbreak?
Xenopus used for pregnancy testing (1930s), populations escaped, coexists with and harbours Bd
267
agricultural and amphibian populations
habitat loss, pesticide exposure, runoff
runoff: increased ammonia, phosphate, oxygen demand
may cause lower reproductive success, reduce population viability
268
first blow to salamanders
increased UV -unshelled eggs, permeable skin - very sensitive to UV
climate change, O3 depletion, acidification-- modify organic carbon-- increase UV penetration
269
species response to human alteration
invasive species favoured by human alteration of habitat
270
difficult to find species detection
amplify DNA in water samples
271
BC Reptiles
10 species
272
amniote groups
synapsids - mammals
| diapsids (reptiles) - testudines, lepidosaurs, archosaurs
273
Vision- light comes in to
cornea -- pupil
274
light is focused
at the back of the eye, fovea
275
slice of retina
rods and cones at back of eye
| photon has to 'get through' to them
276
rods and cones
light-sensitive modified nerve cells
contain opsins
attached to retina
277
cones
day light, iodopsin
278
rods
night light, not good resolution, rhodopsin
279
rhodopsin
```
low light
~10^-4 - 10^-1 light intensity
~new-full moon light
rods
scoptic vision
dominate retina in all species
```
280
iodospin
```
'high' light
~10^-1 - 10^4 light intensity
candles - dawn - bright day
cones (only active in day)
photopic vision
prevalent only in fovea in diurnal species
```
281
fovea
solid cones, where photons are focused (rest of retina MOSTLY rods)
282
scoptic vision
seeing in dark
283
colour detection
detected by 3 types of cones equated to energy levels, not detected by opsins
284
monochromatic
1 rod pigment
| 1 cone pigment
285
dichromatic
2 cone pigments
286
trichromatic
3 cone pigments
287
tetrachromatic
4 cone pigments
288
enhanced reptile/bird colour vision
red, orange, and yellow oil droplets randomly distributed at entrance of cones
some reptiles, most birds
289
oil droplets in colour vision
narrow by-pass filters, shift light hitting the pigments
wide series of combinations btw pigments and oil drops
resolve more subtle differences in colour
290
blue cones max λ
430 nm
291
rods max λ
495 nm
292
green cones max λ
530nm
293
red cones max λ
560nm
294
more opsin =
more shades of colour
295
most birds and turtles have how many opsins
4-5
| some fish have 12!
296
why need better vision?
shadows of predators, ripeness of berries, prey/predators that blend in
297
deep water animal colour vision
usually monochromatic
298
reptile egg development
gender dependent on incubation T
| different patterns
299
sex determination patterns
I - decreased % males with increased T
| II - highest % males at intermediate T's
300
why/how sex determination works (reptiles)
f/m may choose microhabitat w/ better success rate for that sex. ex. outside T = Tmale development, then choose microhabitat that preferentially causes m development
301
differences in microhabitats, T
a matter of 3m difference in breeding grounds can cause the difference in m/f
ex lizard. 100%f at 23-29º, 0% at >29º
302
Turtles (testudines) all have
testa (shell, ribcage)
keratinous sheath on jaws (rather than teeth)
ectothermy (leatherback has partial endothermy)
anapsid skull (limited jaw movement)
scotopic (night vision)
303
tortoises
terrestrial testudines
304
terrapins
swamp testudines
305
turtles
mainly underwater testudines
306
tortoise, terrapin, turtle
not a taxonomic division, descriptive terms
307
testudines sizes
up to 2.5m
| great leatherback - 900kg
308
testudines geological age
origin- late Carboniferous
| first fossils- Permian (terrestrial)
309
turtle breeding
```
5-100 eggs in excavated pits on beach or forest
~50 day incubation
no parental care
sex determination based on T
live up to ~177yrs (Darwin)
```
310
r-strategist
emphasis on high growth rate, typically exploit less-crowded niches, produce many offspring, each of which has relatively low probability of surviving (bacteria, insects, rodents)
311
k-strategist
large body size, long life expectancy, and the production of fewer offspring, which often require extensive parental care until they mature
312
extinct lepidosaurs
plesiosaurs
| ichthyosaurs
313
plesiosaur/pliosaur features
```
apex marine predator of mesozoic (2nd half)
up to 20m long
taxonomically diverse
viviparous
extinct at KT
```
314
plesiosaur fossils
common on VI and HG
ogopogo?
cadborosaurus?
315
viviparous
live birth
316
oviparous
egg-laying
317
ovoviviparous
internal fertilization, live birth, no placental connection, unborn young are nourished by egg yolk
318
Ichthyosaurs
```
first half mesozoic
resemble dolphins
average 2-10m, up to 21m
viviparous - tail-first birth
very large eye sockets
likely endotherm
```
319
why large eye sockets?
low light, nocturnal, great depth
| high speed
320
why large eye sockets for high speeds?
take advantage of bioluminescence?
| large bone around eye would protect against high swim speed
321
squamata
sister taxa to sphenodonts (tuatara)
| lizards and snakes
322
squamata geo age
modern families from the Jurassic
323
squamata jaw
unique joint where lower jaw attacks to skull -- increased jaw closing strength
324
squamata fossil forms
Mosasaurs (look like Pliosaur)
325
Mosasaur
```
cretaceous marine predator
10m long
shallow water
eel-like movement not dolphin-like
likely oviparous
```
326
number of modern lizards
4000 species globally
327
lizards are
mostly tropical
all ectotherms
mostly small,
328
large lizards
~3m
| tend to be herbivorous (iguana)
329
lizard habitats
diverse- desert, swamp, pond, alpine, fossorial, arboreal, marine
330
fossorial lizard
legless lizards
331
arboreal lizards
chameleons, anoles, iguana
332
legless lizards evolved
independently, numerous times
highly convergent w/ snakes
tube within tube structure- bi-directional movement underground, atypical
333
snakes developed
early Mesozoic
334
snake reorganization
got rid of bilateral symmetry
| reorganized internal anatomy to accommodate long narrow trunk
335
snake organs
single functional lung
| paired organs positioned in a line rather than side by side (ex kidney)
336
snake # species and size
2900 species
| 2cm (thread snake) - 10m (anaconda)
337
spurs
snake limb traces
present in less derived groups
burrowing snakes, boas, use for reproduction (clasping)
338
snake jaw
unhinges for large prey soncumption
339
snake breeding
70% oviparous
rest ovoviviparous
parental care rare- absent
340
snake special features
```
modified skull
organ reorganization
ectothermic
pit organs (heat sensing)
forked tongue (chemosensory direction)
```
341
snake tongue kind of analogous to..
birds having more opsins
| more of a sensing organ = more detection in that sense
342
snake habitats
fossorial, ground, arboreal, aquatic
343
most poisonous snake on the planet
```
Taipan
Australia
3m
neurotoxin, blood clotting
100% lethal bite w/o antivenom
```
344
snake cultural legacies
Rod of Asclepius, Son of Apollo, hospital-like building w/ snakes, shedding = healing
345
fear of snakes
Ophidiophobia
346
snake shedding
4-6 times / yr
| parasite/wound removal
347
BC reptile distribution
mid- south BC
mid BC ~1-2 species
mid-South 3-4 species
middle S interior - 7-10
348
BC turtles
```
leatherback sea turtle
green sea turtle
olive ridley sea turtle
pacific pond turtle
western painted turtle
red-eared slider
```
349
leatherback sea turtle scientific name
Dermochelys coriacea
350
leatherback info.
```
widest global distribution of all reptiles
12,000km migration/yr
dive 1200m
feed on jellies
nest in FA, costa rica, Mexico, malaysia
```
351
green sea turtle scientific name
Chelonia mydas
352
green sea turtle info
```
wide distribution, mostly tropic
infrequent in BC, 2 recently in Pac Rim
young eat inverts.
adults eat eel/turtle grass
intolerant of T
```
353
Olive Ridley Sea turtle (pacific ridley) info
circum- subtropic
long migrations
historically most abundant sea turtle
1 washed up in Pac Rim in 2011
354
Pacific Pond Turtle scientific name
Actinemys marmorata
355
Pacific pond turtle info
```
historically in BC near US border
1866- present in majority of S lakes and ponds
last seen - 1959
extirpated in Canada
prefer logs, rocks, small ponds
```
356
Western painted turtle scientific name
Chrysemys picta bellii
357
Western painted turtle info.
S BC - Ontario and S
primarily carnivorous (beetles, etc)
only native turtle left in BC
hibernate in ponds/lakes under ice
358
red-eared slider scientific name
Trachemys scripta elegans
359
red-eared slider info.
alien
native to S US
longevity to 50 years
360
BC lizards
northern alligator lizard
pigmy short-horned lizard
western skink
european wall lizard
361
Northern alligator lizard scientific name
Elgeria coerulea
362
northern alligator lizard info.
```
sea level- 3000m
hemlock, douglas fir forests
sunning on rocks
feed on large insects, spiders, millipedes
internal fertilization, birth of young
```
363
pigmy short-horned lizard scientific name
Phrynosoma douglasii
364
pigmy short-horned lizard info.
```
3 BC records, last in 1960
grassy, sagebrush, dry forest
major diet - ants
squirt blood from ocular sinus
inflate body and gape
```
365
western skink scientific name
Eumeces skiltonianus
366
Western skink info.
dry habitat-grass, sagebrush, dry forest
hibernate in communal den
diet of ground inverts.
defense - autotomy, self-inflicted or predator
367
autotomy
self-amputation
368
european wall lizard scientific name
Podarcis muralis
369
european wall lizard info.
city of Victoria, 1970 (private zoo), NE US, europe, asia
oviparous - eggs laid under logs
same microhabitat as alligator lizard
can partially freeze ~5min
370
BC Snakes
```
western terrestrial garter
northwester garter
common garter
rubber boa
sharp-tailed snake
northern pacific rattlesnake
western yellow-bellied racer
great basin gopher snake
desert night snake
```
371
western terrestrial garter snake
Thamnophis elegans
mildly venomous
can constrict rodent prey
372
Common garter snake
Thamnophis sirtalis
most widespread snake in NA
most northerly distribution
373
garter snakes
wide range of habitats (riparian, meadows, mt. slopes, S facing slopes)
overwinter in large groups in hibernacula
eat any live prey it can swallow
internal fertilization
live-bearing, 5-10 young
opportunistic foragers
374
garter snake hibernacula
underground cavities that do not freeze
375
rubber boa
```
Carina bottae
same family as true boa's
kill by constriction
up to 80cm
thick body
long-lived, 30yrs
wide diet (bats, eggs, chicks, rabbits, mice, squirrels, snakes, lizards, frogs)
```
376
sharp-tailed snake
```
Contra tenuis
S VI - California
Douglas fir and Arbutus forests
nocturnal
communal egg-laying
feed on small slugs
```
377
northern pacific rattlesnake
```
Crotalus oreganus
only venomous BC snake
crepuscular
vertical pupils
rattle
each most = new tip to rattle
live bearers
multi species hibernacula
```
378
crepuscular
active primarily during twilight
379
northern pacific rattlesnake venom
hemotoxin
380
western yellow-bellied racer
Colluber constrictor
widespread in W NA
hot, dry river valleys
fast, large eyes, oviparous
381
great basin gopher snake
Pituophis catenine deserticola
| widespread in W NA in dry, moist habitat
382
desert night snake
S BC - Mexico
dry habitat
diet - amphibian, reptile
383
Pacific Gopher Snake
extirpated in BC
| widespread in W US (Or - Ca)
384
Archosaurs
birds, dinosaurs, crocodiles
385
Archosaur appearance
first in Triassic or Permian
| diversified in Mesozoic
386
ancient archosaur characters
```
bipedalism prevalent in stem
teeth in sockets
fenestra anterior to eye and on lower jaw
2 major lineages in early Mesozoic
early fossils -terrestrial
some aquatics
similar size/mass to T. rex
```
387
2 major archosaur lineages
crocodiles
| pterosaurs, dinosaurs, birds
388
period of greatest crocodile diversity
Mesozoic
389
current archosaur distribution
tropical
| ectothermic
390
Gharial
fish eating croc.
specialist
long narrow jaw - moves quick
391
croc vs. alligator
croc V-head
alligator U-head
croc lower jaw teeth visible w/ mouth closed
alligator lower jaw teeth into upper jaw sockets
392
alligator diet
fish, snakes, birds, small/large mammals
| simple parental care
393
archosaur endothermy/ectothermy
crocodilian ancestors endothermic, invasion back to aquatic reverted back to ectothermy
retain 4-chamber heart (rare in ecto's)
pulmonary bypass shunt
394
Pterosaurs
```
'winged-lizard'
origin and extinction - mesozoic
sparrow size - 15m wing
leather wing membrane - gliding
no keel- modest flight muscle
hollow bones (like birds)
advanced flight maneuverability
```
395
2 dinosaur groups, major diversification
bird-like pelvis (did not give rise to birds)
| lizard-like pelvis
396
bird-like pelvis group
beaked
herbivorous
herding
397
lizard-like pelvis group
toothed
predatory
solitary/packs
398
in the mesozoic, large crocs
kept dino diversity 'in-check'
(10-15m)
dino's didn't diversify until crocs slowed down
399
weird that pterosaur could take off from ground?
no sternum- limited muscles
| bone wings - not cartilage
400
early radiation of dinosaurs
3 major lineages known from Triassic when contents were joined into Pangaea, climates were hot and arid
401
3 major dino. lineages
theropods
sauropodomorphs
omithischians
402
history of thermoregulation in dinosaurs 1900-1970s
```
ectothermic
big crocodiles
too costly given mass
community pred-prey ratios similar to ectotherms
growth rings in teeth
```
403
who proposed endothermy in dinosaurs and why
Ostrom - bipedal, fast, predatory
opens debate
re-opens argument for link between dinosaurs and birds
404
endothermic arguments (dinosaurs)
leg bone x-section same as mammals
rapid growth rate like mammals
growth rings occur in endo.'s too (polar bear)
405
oxygen isotopes (dinosaurs)
Delta O-18 values indicate that dinosaurs maintained rather constant Tb in the range of endotherms
406
dinosaur oxygen isotope work suggests
high metabolic rates amongst widely different taxonomic groups, endothermy may be a synapomorphy of dinosaurs, or acquired convergently
407
synapomorphy
shared derived character or trait state that distinguishes a clade from other organisms
408
feathers in dinosaurs?
pennaceous and filamentous, possibly more diverse than modern ones, some features and morphotype lost in feather evolution
409
pennaceous feather
type of feather present in most modern birds and some species of dinosaurs,has a stalk or quill, basal part, calamus, embedded in skin
410
china deposits
so detailed and fine, lots of new evidence- feathers, colour
411
fossil feathers preserve
morphology of color-imparting melanosomes. allow reconstruction of colour patterns.
412
molecular data fossilization
some intact soft tissue- osteocytes with nuclei -- DNA
| may resolve relationships in evolutionary tree
413
K-T extinction
```
65mya
plate tectonics - loss of shelf habitat
global T reduction
Deccan flats
magnetic reversals
loss of atmospheric O2
meteorites
```
414
deccan flats
2my of vulcanism (65-63mya)
415
K-T meteorite
```
10km diameter
iridium layer
global fires
opaque atmosphere (5-10yr nuclear winter)
global collapse of marine/terrestrial pp
massive CO2 increase
```
416
changes in magnetic field =
changes in insolation and [O2]
417
pCO2 reconstruction from leaves
higher CO2 = smaller stomata
| found K-T pCO2 levels 350-500ppmv, marked increase to at least 2,300ppmv within 10,000 years of KTB (boundary)
418
Birds - geological time
mid jurassic
419
Theropods
Maniraptor
appear to be origin of birds
light skull, pointed, large eye sockets, pleuorcoels, multiple cervical vertebrae, caudal tail shortens
420
teeth changes throughout bird evolution
teeth become less serrated then teeth lost completely
421
pleurocoels
respiratory vascularization
possible air-sac system like birds
lungs go into bones
422
Maniraptor larger eye sockets
probably fast moving
423
maniraptor increased cervical vertebrae
quick neck snatch
| S-shaped neck
424
gradual transition to birds
maniraptor - dromeosaur - archaeopteryx
425
dromeosaur
```
running lizard
~2m
sickle claw
semi-arboreal
couldn't fly
grasping arms
swivel wrist joint
cursorial terrestrial predator
```
426
archaeopteryx
```
'first wing'
size of raven, heavily feathered
asymmetric wing/tail feathers
longer arms
reduced tail
terrestrial w/ flapping flight
```
427
cursorial
adapted to run
428
enantiornithes
```
improved low speed flight
increased skeletal fusion
deeper sternum
alula
shorter tail
```
429
ichthyornithiformes
essentially modern flight
shorter back/tail
deeper sternum and keel
more compact back and hip
430
evolution of limbs (birds)
limbs become hollow in dromeosaur
forelimbs become longer relative to hindlimbs
fusion of wrist bones
fusion of hindlimb bones
early theropods couldn't rotate shoulder cuff- important in flight
431
wrist bone fusion
allow wrist to rotate for prey manipulation
432
scapula/clavical evolution, birds
scapula reduced
| clavicle modified to v-shaped bone in front of sternum (wishbone) -- develops keel
433
bird evolution- hindlimb fusion
fibula reduced to narrow splinter
434
bird evolution- foot metatarsals
elongated and fused
435
dromeosaur feathers
placement similar to modern bird
some down-like, some hair-like
vaned feathers on tail- heat retention, display
436
feathers developed asymmetrically for
flight and drag reduction
| no birds have symmetric wings- aerodynamics
437
proposals for evolution of flight
running jump
gliding from trees
running/climbing
438
running/climbing flight
run up tree trunk, flap poorly developed wings-- generate lift and forward momentum, claws can grip trunk
439
rachis
central shaft of feather
440
calamus
base of the feather, expanded, hollow, tubular (quill), inserts into a follicle in the skin
441
bird vs. human leg
birds walk on toes, metatarsals are upright, then ankle bend
| bird leg bends 3 times (2 joints) compared to humans
442
Archaeopteryx growth rate
very slow like small dinosaurs >>1y to adult size
| late cretaceous - modern birds grow within 1 yr
443
theropod eggs
non-avian (crocodile): round-elliptical, large clutches (up to 60)
maniraptor/modern birds: tapered, small clutch (
444
diversity changes in bird evolution
late jurassic only Archaeopteryx persists
| lower K- diversification again- major group = Enantiornithes
445
enantiornithe
'opposite bird'
sparrow-goose sized
progressive tooth and vertebral reduction
atypical scapula
coracoid joint reversed to that of modern bird (concave)
atypical foot bone fusion
no tail fan
446
why eggs are tapered
possibly anti-rolling, thermoregulatory, body cavity limitations, increased length of embryo
447
second major group of birds
Neornithes
mid Cretaceous
develop into modern birds
448
Ichthyornis ("fish" - "eating")
```
gull sized
feathered
toothed jaw
sternum, keel
gull-tern - like behaviour
```
449
Neornithes birds
Ichthyornis
| Hesperornis
450
Hesperornis
```
aquatic
feathered
toothed
vestigial wings
lateral hindlimb
lobed feet like grebe, not webbed
no land walking
```
451
classification of modern birds
neornithes
palaeognaths
neognaths
neoaves
452
Palaeognaths
tinamous
ratites
ancestor group to neoaves and neognaths
453
ratites
ostrich, rheas, emu, kiwis, cassowary
| all flightless
454
tianamous
bright, colourful, shiny eggs
most ancient of modern groups
live on continents that made up Gondwana
455
paleognaths, neognaths, neoaves differentiated
before KTB
456
Neognaths
Galliformes
sister group to neoaves
turkey, waterfowl
457
continents that made up gondwana
Antarctica, South America, Africa- Madagascar, India, Australia-New Guinea and New Zealand
458
neoaves
biggest group in phylogeny (vastly)
sister group to neognaths
landlords, shorebirds, aquatic, hummingbirds, swifts
459
stork vs flamingo
stork - neoaves, closely related to loon, albatross, penguin
| flamingo - neognaths, closely related to grebe, pigeon
460
flight biomechanics
```
size constraints:
ostrich 150kg
elephantbird 450kg
both flightless
largest flying - giant condor 20kg
```
461
elephantbird
~300yrs
| extinct from humans taking eggs
462
symmetrical tracts where feathers grow
pterylae
463
bare skin between feather tracts
apteria (may contain down)
464
parts of a feather
```
rachis- middle, main axis
vane- ?
calamus- end
barb- comes out from rachis
hamuli - come out from barbs
```
465
wing features
shaft, notch, primaries, secondaries, axiliaries
466
some feather types
body contour
bristle
semiplume
filoplume
467
bristle
near eyes and bill
468
semiplume
insulation
469
filoplume
sensory
470
Primaries
attached to 'hand'
fundamental in lift and propulsion/thrust
long and tapered
471
feather symmetry
asymmetric
472
why prene
reconnect the barbs (like velcro) that come loose during flight- essential for flight efficiency
473
tree nesting birds have a lot of what
semiplume: max volume for floating down from tree before able to fly
474
numbers of primaries
passerines 10
grebes, storks, flamingos 12
ostrich 16
475
passerines
more than half of all bird species. unique toe arrangement-three pointing forward, one back- perching. known as perching birds or, songbirds
476
secondaries
lifet
attached to ulna
broader
blunt end
477
some secondary numbers
hummingbird 6
| albatross 40
478
'arm' bone proportions
proportions change in bird size/type, fluttering vs. soaring
hummingbird hand>>ulna, humerus
albatross ulna/humerus>hand
479
almost no-flight feathers
tertials (humerus)
480
increase flying speed
```
increased amplitude (not frequency)
inversely associated with relative wing lenth
```
481
'thumb'
alula
shorter than rest of 1º's
very important at slow speeds
like airplane 'flap'
482
primaries compared to phylogenetic tree
lowest in passerines (10) 'top' of phylogenetic tree
| most (16) in ostrich, 'bottom' of tree- furthest outgroup
483
how to increase flying height
increase angle of attack or bend wing
484
airfoil
shape that causes aerodynamic forces when moved through fluid
485
aerodynamic forces
the component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag.
486
indentations at end of 1º's
(notches) decrease drag
487
lift
air under wing is constant (~flat)
| air over wing is - pressure b/c it has to move faster to go as far over the convex surface
488
v formation
birds behind can take advantage of up-wash
489
up-wash
the upward flow of air directly ahead of the leading edge of a moving airfoil
490
climb angle
angle of attack
491
climb angle increased
by alula- produce vortices that improve tighter flow to upper wing surface at low speed. allows increase of 5-10º
492
aspect ratio =
(wingspan)^2 / area of wing
493
wing loading =
mass of bird / area of wing
494
longer wings
reduce area of vortices relative to lift area
495
tapered wings
reduce area of vortices at expense of lift area
496
high aspect ratio
high lift : low drag
ex. shearwater
can go up fast but maybe not soar
497
low aspect ratio example
grouse
498
birds in high aspect - high loading grid corner
small, thin wings
diving birds
gannets, snipe, grebe, murres, sea duck, swan, duck, quail, puffin, pigeons, oyster-catcher
499
birds in high loading - low aspect grid corner
small, broad wings
poor fliers
petrels, grouse, woodpeckers, doves, tinamous, pheasants, peacock, turkey
500
birds in low loading - low aspect grid corner
large, broad wings
thermal soarers
larks, crows, cranes, eagles, owls, hawks, starling, herons, storks, vultures, condors
501
birds in low loading - high aspect grid corner
large, thin wings
Aerial predators and marine soarers
kites, harriers, cuckoos, falcons, pelicans, storm-petrels, plovers, avocets, swallows, terns, swift, skimmers, albatrosses
502
tail feathers
retrices
primarily for braking, steering, lift
often 6, up to 12 (grouse), absent in some (grebes)
503
tail feathers connected
central pair to pygostyle w/ ligament (for rotation)
| remaining pairs in rectricial bulbs beside pygostyle
504
pygostyle
final few caudal vertebrae are fused into a single ossification, supporting the tail feathers and musculature
505
long tail feathers =
sharp turns
| brilliant display
506
epigamic
sexual display
| attracting the opposite sex, as the colors of certain birds
507
molting
replacement of feathers (modified scales)
| usually 1/yr after reproduction
508
does molting result in loss of flight
feathers typically lost in stages, bilaterally symmetrical, so typically no loss of flight. some species have 4-5wk flightless stage (Canada Goose)
509
which feathers are lost
oldest first
| replaces w/ pin feathers-- develop to full size
510
Canada goose melting adaptation
absorbs flight muscles and reconstitutes them as leg muscles to move terrestrial
511
bird mass distribution
shifted posteriorly
512
bird anterior bones
(skull, vertebra, wings) all pneumatic, lighter than mammalian
513
bird leg bones
stronger and heavier than mammals
514
bird total mass : body size
similar to mammal
515
pneumatic bones ancestral or derived
ancestral, present in flightless archosaurs
516
which birds have less pneumatic bones
diving birds - need to be heavier
517
a heavy bird with small wings
penguin, divers
518
bird pelvis
fused to thoracic vertebra and sacrum to produce synsacrum for hind limb attachment
519
bird muscles
flight muscles = 30% of total mass
leg muscles = 2% of total mass
light and dark
520
relative muscle proportions
vary according to niche (aerial-running-diving) and molt cycle
521
dark muscle
high myoglobin content - aerobic metabolism
522
light muscle
no myoglobin - short duration flight muscles - anaerobic
523
flying - downstroke
pectoralis pull tight, pulling wing bone down
524
flying - upstroke
supracoracoideus pulls tendon that loops around foramen triosseum, pulling wing bone up
525
wing muscles
pectoralis is on outside
| supracoracoideus is on inside (touching/attached to sternum, scapula)
526
pectorals mass : supracoracoideus mass
rapid take-off or hovering
3:1
horizontal fliers, gliders
20 : 1
527
bird internal adaptations to flight
```
4 chambered heart
250-1200 heart rate
~40ºC Tb
drop 5-10ºC at night
2 lung, 9 air sacs
```
528
Bird ventilation
lungs not vascularized (no gas exchange)
air sacs expand on upstroke-
inhale passively
air sacs 'squished' on downstroke - exhale actively
529
what happens when air sacs are 'squished'
shunt is closed, air is forced into parabronchi for gas exchange
530
why do all birds lay eggs with no variation (ovoviviparity, viviparity, etc)
too much weight if young developed internally
531
bird egg laying
1 egg/day
| single oviduct
532
bird urinary bladder
secret uric acid rather than urea
| dont dilute w/ water, more water limited
533
bird degestion
rapid, regurgitate pellets of undigested material, increased flight efficiency
534
bird digestive tract
esophagus, crop, proventriculus, gizzard, pylorus
535
crop
storage area, milk production (squamosal cells)
536
proventriculus
glandular stomach, highly extendable in piscivores and frugivore
537
gizzard
highly muscular, small stones for food grinding
538
bird diet diversity
frugivory, granivory, herbivory, insectivory, piscivory, herbivory, omnivory, carnivory, etc.
539
bird food requirements
much more than us, higher energy requirements, some eat more than body mass each day
540
human food requirements
~1-2% of body weight
541
food requirements per body mass
```
higher in smaller body masses
large birds (goose)- 10% body weight
small (wren)- 200% body weight
~2x in pre-fledged age
~400% increase during provisioning of young
```
542
some daily food consumption : body mass (g) examples
```
goldcrest 7.0 : 5.7
wren 9.5 : 8.9
blue tit 13.5 : 11.5
skylark 224.8 : 37.2
wood pigeon 999.8 : 490.0
```
543
impacts on nutritional requirement
body size
| what is being eaten - how digestible is it? (ex. leaves)
544
minimal gross energy requirement of 4.5kg eagle for 90day winter period at 5ºC
13 salmon, 20 rabbits, 32 ducks
545
why do desert birds have lower energy requirements?
less energy needed to produce body heat
546
why is there a need to reduce energy demands?
12g chickadee would use all fat reserves in 1 BC night and starve by morning if Tb held constant (40ºC)
547
methods for reducing energy demand
Turpor- drop Tb ~10ºC overnight, reduces SMR by ~30%
548
SMR
standard metabolic rate
549
problem with deep turpor
STILL use up 75% of fat reserve, need to re-establish fat reserve every day (early), morning storms = high mortality
550
to combat fat loss, reduce Tb more?
the more Tb is dropped, the harder it is to get back in the morning
551
large birds and turpor
large birds don't, they can survive a few days without eating
the largest bird that enters deep torpor is common poorwill (80g)
552
hummingbird turpor
varying states throughout day and night. fn of ambient T, foraging success, predator risk. increased torpor = prolonged incubation, increased mortalitly
553
reductions in daily foraging of hummingbird
12% reduction = 2 hours torpor at night
| 20% reduction = 3.5 hours torpor at night
554
bird eye
immobile in most species
nictmttating membrane
different fields of vision
tetrachromatic
555
nictititating membrane
lubrication, protection
556
bird eye - field of vision
lateral (eyes on side of head)- improved resolution, perception, look out 1 at a time
binocular (forward, eyes on front of face) - depth/distance perception
557
visual sensitivity proportional to
density of photoreceptors in retina
558
bird visual acuity examples
songbird: 2X humans
raptor: 5-10X humans
559
size of proportional to
body mass
| also larger in nocturnal species and raptors
560
bird, tetrachromatism
4 cone pigments (iodopsin) + rod pigment (rhodopsin, 503nm) + 1-6 different coloured oil drops
561
diurnal bird eye
mainly cones, some rods
562
nocturnal birds
mainly rods, some cones
563
bird retina
2 regions - red field on dorsal quadrant, yellow field is the rest. relative proportion of red, orange, yellow oil droplets make up red/yellow regions
564
pigeon eye
additional micro-oil droplets in cones of red region
565
bird eye, oil droplets
shift light spectra, combinations of photopigments + oil drops = highly sophisticated colour vision, sensitive to polarized light
566
vole detection by kestrel
kestrel utilize UV detection with additional opsin (370nm). Urine fluorescent, UV absorbance reradiates photons of longer wavelengths.
567
even cooler about vole urine
fungal endophyte of grass-- enhance UV visibility of urine-- increase conspicuousness of vole. grazing on endophyte-infected grass = death!
568
what does ontogenetic iris colour change tell
sometimes age
| ex. sharp-shinned hawk yellow -- red
569
what does iris colour tell us
well there appears to be commonality in birds of the same habitat
570
bird hearing
```
usually lower than humans
no external ear/pinnae
single bone
cochlea differences
sensitivity inverse to body size
```
571
bird, no external ear
sound goes down auditory canal to tympanic membrane
572
bird, single ear bone
columella or stapes
| vibrations transmitted through bone in middle ear to inner membrane in cochlea
573
cochlea
inner ear
574
inner ear membrane
oval window
575
cochlea second membrane
round window - allows pressure vibrations to be dissipated (20X amplification)
576
bird, inner ear
uncoiled cochlea, hearing, balance, length varies among species (longer in predators)
577
bird, ear sensitivity
20Hz - 20kHz
average 1-8kHz
inversely related to body size
slightly less sensitive than human at average frequency
much less sensitive than human at low (5kHz) frequencies
578
inner ear anatomy can tell what about life history
cochlear size can tell hearing frequency range, vocal complexity, large group sociality
579
high hearing sensitivity examples
low: budgerigar (40Hz), rock dove (50Hz), eagle owl (60Hz), great horned owl (60Hz)
high: tawny owl (21kHz), long-eared owl (18kHz), european robin (21kHz)
580
bird, ear sensitivity
high sensitivity in mid ranges (1-8kHz, ~20dB), less E requirement than good hearing at all ranges
sensitivity ranges may shift
581
shifts in hearing sensitivity range, birds
may increase acuity in winter when food abundance is low, camouflage is low (leaves fallen), for early mating, to be able to communicate amongst species with lower predation risk
582
owl hearing
round face
asymmetric ears
bristles down middle of face
583
owl hearing, round face
sense shape, focus sound to ears, amplify
584
owl hearing, asymmetric ears
can ID vertical plane sounds
right ear: higher, angled differently, more sensitive to sound above horizontal
left ear: more sensitive to sound below horizontal (prey below them)
rotates head until stimulation is symmetrical
585
owl hearing, bristles down middle of face
stereo sound
586
hearing sensitivity of nestlings
columella not present at hatching- chicks can't hear, at 8 days can't hear lower than diesel truck, ~1wk before leaving nest can hear very similar to adult birds, hearing full developed by time vocal learning begins
587
bird foot structures
```
walking
hopping
perching
climbing
surface paddling, diving
```
588
bird foot, hopping
feet together, arboreal birds (mostly passerines that can't walk), starling, crows
589
bird foot, walking/running
```
cursorial birds (running)
2-3 toed, facing forward, no back toe
```
590
bird foot, perching
most arboreal species (songbird, eagle, hawk), anisodactyly
591
anisodactyly
3 toes forward, one backward and opposable- back toe is toe #1 = thumb
592
unique perching bird foot
king fisher- syndactyly, back toe farther back, front toes longer
593
bird foot, climbers
zygodacytly- 2 toes forward, 2 back
| nuthatches, creepers, woodpeckers, parrots, owls
594
bird foot, surface paddling, diving
webs or lobes
semipalmate, totipalmate, palmate, lobate
plover, cormorant, ducks, loons, gulls, grebe
595
palmate
webbing between front toes- toes 2, 3, and 4
596
totipalmate
webbing between all 4 toes, toe 1 is to the side not back
597
semipalmate
only a little webbing between 1, 2, and 3
598
perching bird leg
pretty much only see up to heel, fibula and femur against body, in perching position body mass causes achilles tendon to clamp foot shut
599
why a bill?
greater diversity possible than toothed jaws
600
what is a bill?
bony interior covered with an outer non-rigid keratin plate (rhamphotheca) that covers mandible, maxillae, premaxillae.
601
bill types
generalist, insect catching, grain eating, coniferous-seed eating, nectar feeding, fruit eating, chiseling, dip netting, surface skimming, scything, probing, filter feeding, aerial fishing, pursuit fishing, scavenging, raptorial
602
fossil bird bill
many had teeth, aquatic birds kept teeth more than terrestrial, modern birds still have capacity to form teeth
603
foraging strategies
aerial piracy, aerial pursuit, dipping, skimming, pattering, hydroplaning, surface filtering, scavenging, surface seizing, surface plunging, deep plunging, pursuit diving: feet, pursuit diving: wings, bottom feeding
604
birds that surface feed from floating, hovering, or flight
petrels, albatross, shearwater, gull, eagle, osprey. high metabolic requirements. slow growth rate, reproduce every 2 years, long incubation
605
surface feeding: floating, hovering, flight
hover at surface and capture small fish, zooplankton, jellyfish, small squid. feed night and day, rarely settle on water
606
surface feeding most common
at zones of convergence, often 100's of kms from land
607
surface feeding bird incubation
65 days
longest incubation of any bird
all egg T to drop to ambient
608
bird foraging: diving from surface and underwater pursuit
foot or wing propulsion, weak aerial fliers, exploit niche space unavailable to surface feeders/plungers
609
birds that forage from surface diving/underwater pursuit
cormorant, loon, grebe, mergansers, auklets, murrelets, puffing, murres, penguins
610
surface diving depth examples
cormorant, loon 70m
| penguin >500m
611
bird foraging: deep plunge diving from flight
from horizontal flight- angle wings and plunge vertically, depth determined by momentum and mass. special breast air sac cushions impact
612
deep plunge diving birds
mostly gannets, shearwater, pelicans
613
depth of deep plunging divers
gannet - 10m
| max depth a fn of mass
614
scything
pick up think biofilm across sand
615
filter feeding birds have
keratinous extensions on bill (like baleen whale)
616
petrel feeding strategy
very expensive. feed basically 24hrs. small, fly far. egg slows down incubation if parent is not sitting on it- so it doesn't starve to death while parent is away foraging for long period. very rare to have long incubation in small birds.
617
why don't we have deep divers?
high PP, reduced clarity
618
bird foraging: skimming
small fish, zooplankton
ex. black skimmer (CA)
long bill, bottom longer
619
bird foraging: piracy and scavenging
gulls, eagles, pomarine jaeger, frigate
| often convex bill
620
brid foraging: probing, biofilm feeding
long bills
different lengths = differential niche space exploitation
tidal/mud flats
621
bird plumage: reasons
```
display/signaling
hunting camouflage
defense camouflage
thermoregulatory
non-functional
historical
```
622
vertebrate species #'s globally
```
amphibians 7000
reptiles 9600
birds 10,000
mammals 5500
fish 30,000
```
623
tetrapod species # canada
amphibians 43
reptiles 51
birds 615
mammals 207
624
tetrapod species # BC
amphibians ~20
reptiles ~20
birds ~530
mammals ~150
625
why are marine birds highly convergent in colour
hunting strategy
626
think about when determining plumage colour
why? how can we test? if historical, why historical? what does predator/prey see? what is background? what is the females perspective? what is life history? microhabitat? compare colour amongst single species.
627
example of sexual dimorphism not related to sexual signaling
snowy owl - male white b/c hunts, female darker b/c sits on eggs
628
example of bird colour differences due to microhabitat
bufflehead- hang out at slightly different distances from shore- different reflections from above
629
why so many marine birds white
hunting camouflage- against bright sky looking up
630
why are there black gulls then?
different foraging time (night)? where do they live (tropics, thermoregulatory)?
631
why are swans white? (not fishers)
white birds tend to have thicker feathers. higher albedo, less absorbed insolation.
632
thin & black feathers and white & thick feathers both = heat. why 2 solutions to the same problem?
exploit more niche space? nesting site: white birds tend to roost at night in open spaces (loose more heat), dark birds in protected areas (loose less heat)
633
lake colours
oceanic/clear mt lake - blue
interior, high phyto lake - green
dystrophic - red/brown, tea
634
dystrophic
having brown acidic water, low in O2, supports little life- high levels of dissolved humus
635
pursuit arc
the area ahead of the predator that contains prey species at risk
636
narrow pursuit arc
bigger birds, swim fast in straight line
637
wide pursuit arc
smaller birds, swim slower, back and forth across area
638
white belly/neck birds in blue water
lessens contrast/dark shadow
| the 1 photon that reflects off of water reduces the shadow of the animal (from the fishes perspective)
639
red belly/neck bird in dystrophic water
in dominantly red environment light is red-shifted- red belly removes shadow same way it works in blue water/white bird
640
so why are there variations in how much red (or other colours) are present- all the way up neck, across belly, etc.
swimming speed, pursuit arc
smaller bird- larger pursuit arc- most fish in front of and to the side of predator are 'at-risk-', therefore they must be camouflaged from all fish not just the ones directly in front of them
641
loon feeding
all piscivorous
642
loon fossil
previously THOUGHT to be one of oldest groups of living bird- similar to late Mesozoic Hesperornis. First unambiguous fossils in early Eocene.
643
loon body
feet far back on body
high wing-loading
2 juvenile molts
644
loon high wing loading
sometimes can't take off w/o wind
645
loons in phylogenetic tree
~middle
| sister group to pelicans, herons, storks, penguins, albatross, shearwater, petrel
646
phylogenetic tree groups top to bottom
```
landbirds
shorebirds (s.g. w/ landbirds)
aquatic
hummingbirds, swifts
turkeys, waterfowl (sister group to all above)
flightless (sister group to all others)
```
647
BC loons
yellow-billed loon
common loon
pacific loon
red-throated loon
648
arctic loon
previous classification- now split in to pacific loon and black-throated diver
649
common loon distribution
breeding - most of Canada except VERY N and S Alberta/Sask
| wintering- all along coasts of NA
650
pacific loon distribution
breeding- only northern NA (Alaska, territories, very N'n tip of man, que, ont)
wintering- only W coast of NA
651
yellow-billed loon disturbution
breeding- extreme N (TOP of alaska, E side of territories), pretty much exactly where common loon is NOT
wintering- W coast of Canada, alaska
652
red-throated loon distribution
breeding- N coast of NA, and W coast of Canada, very peripheral
wintering- W coast of NA, E coast of US
653
which 2 loons will you never find together
common and yellow-billed
654
red-throated loon distribution oddities
restricted to
655
Common Loons reproduce where
in freshwater lakes May-Sep
highly territorial- 1 pair per small lake, 1 pair per bay in large lake
occupy territory 1-2yrs before nesting
656
common loon lake choice
>0.5 km^2
| don't like small lakes because they have such high wing loading- need the space to take off
657
common loon longevity
~60 years despite high fatality fights
658
why do common loons occupy territory so long before nesting
breeding is expensive, want to get it right. even mock nest construction
659
common loon breeding
longterm pair bonds
mate on or adjacent to nest site
2 eggs laid within several days of mating
24hr/day incubation for 28-39 days (both sexes)
660
common loon morphism/chromatism
monochromatism
| dimorphic- m 5% larger
661
common loon chicks
ride on adult backs
| provisioned by both parents
662
common loon, nest risk
right at edge of lake- flooding will remove nest (b/c they suck at walking on land)
ooivores (crows, ravens, raccoons)
fledging at 70-80 days
remain with parents until ~winter
663
common loon, chick provisions
whole fish
10-16 weeks
no regurgitation
664
common loon and pebbles
digestion, reduce buoyancy for diving
| sometimes mistake gun shells as pebbles- lead poisoning
665
common loon, foraging
```
up to 80m
average dive: 30-60s, up to 4minutes
small fish swallow underwater
large fish brought to surface
eat large diversity of fish
biomagnify contaminants (Hg)
```
