Vertebrate of BC Part 2 Flashcards
(484 cards)
1
Q
Pacific loon nesting
A
northern tip of BC
2
Q
Pacific loon migration
A
huge groups (10's of thousands - >150,000 witnessed passing HG) large groups susceptible to anthropogenic issues (ex.oil spill)
3
Q
Red-throated loon winter distribution
A
inshore marine
Alaska - California
solitary - small group (
4
Q
Red-throated loon breeding distribution
A
small ponds/lakes within 20km of ocean, close to coast
rarely more than 1 pair per pond/lake
5
Q
how can red-throated loons use small ponds
A
shortest take off distance of loons
some distribution overlap w/ Pacific loon (which is more competitive)
6
Q
drizzle lake site characteristics
A
4 nesting territories
minimal wave exposure
abundant fish in lake
7
Q
Red-throated loon nesting
A
choose perfect spot on lake based on fetch, choose site and practice nesting year before (even practice mating)
incubation 28 days
8
Q
why RTLO nests on lake
A
less predators than ocean
9
Q
RTLO defence
A
nesting- only protect ~2-3m
after hatching protection area enlarged
10
Q
why RTLO only protects small area when nesting
A
protecting eggs from ooivores- raccoon, raven, squirrel
11
Q
RTLO defence after chicks hatch
A
larger area to protect, defend against other birds
12
Q
RTLO defending against other RTLO
A
same same defence in both sexes
13
Q
RTLO defending against common loon
A
female takes chick to shore
male defends with very good success
14
Q
why does RTLO have to defend against COLO
A
COLO eats other loon chicks!
15
Q
RTLO male/female differences
A
male a little larger
slight difference in necks marks
16
Q
brood patch
A
bald patch for direct heat transfer to eggs (while incubating)
17
Q
Number of fish eaten vs. age of chick (days), RTLO
A
declines from ~20 - 10 @ 42 days - 0 @ 48 days
18
Q
why does the number of fish eaten decrease (RTLO)
A
able to eat bigger fish
change diet at ~12 days from small fish (sand lace, gunnel) to intermediate (herring, smelt, cod..)
19
Q
RTLO ocean trips
A
up to 18/day
hatchlings need ~20g/day
male carries larger fish
20
Q
relative parental contribution, RTLO
A
males take longer trips to ocean males bring back less fish (but more weight) females 4X as much rearing males defend 100% successful total energetic investment equal
21
Q
% of feeding failure vs. age of chick
A
100% of large fish (brought back by males) are lost up to 6days of age
22
Q
loon abundance in Alaska, BC coast
A
Alaska- 50% decline in RTLO
Here- ~50% decline in COLO
opposite pattern.. displacing each other?
23
Q
why do RTLO go to ocean to catch fish
A
anti-parasite mechanism
tape worms in freshwater fish
COLO chicks die
24
Q
where are raptors in the phylogeny
A
neoaves all in the top group, landbirds sister group to shorebirds not monophyletic falcons s.g. to owls s.g. to hawks&eagles
25
BC raptors
30 species
26
BC raptor wing span
~50cm - 300cm
| characterize niche space
27
Northern Spotted Owl BC range
only SW tip, restricted to old growth coastal forest, declining
28
BC nesting pairs, spotted owl
30-100
29
Spotted Owl characteristics
territorial, nocturnal, solitary in winter, pair in spring/summer, home range 3-50km^2
30
spotted owl diet
small mammals, birds
31
spotted owl predators
red-tailed hawk, great-horned owls, goshawks, marten
32
spotted owl nest
no nest, lay 2 eggs on twigs or in cavities of large conifers
33
spotted owl status
endangered (COSEWIC)
declining ~20%/yr
extinction probably inevitable
34
bald eagle plumage
4th or 5th year
35
bald eagle characteristic
primarily scavenging, piscivory
| live 20-30years
36
bald eagle breeding
largest nest of any NA bird, 6000kg, 6m deep, multi year
35 day incubation
12 week pre-fledging period
37
of west coast bald eagles
50,000 BC and Alaska
38
Bald Eagle dominant diet
autumn- salmon
winter - carrion
spring - herring, eulachon
summer- birds
39
carrion
dead and decaying flesh of an animal
40
eulachon
small anadromous ocean fish, smelt found along Pacific coast of NA, N Cali- Alaska.
unusually high in lipid content
41
bald eagle and gull, Barkley Sound study
bald eagle abundance peaked during incubation/hatching of gull eggs - influences activity of gulls and could impact reproductive success
42
Murre and Cormorant abundance based on peregrine falcon, triangle island
highest abundance when peregrine falcon were near (nesting nearby), when away bald eagle and gulls lead to major decrease in nesting/reproductive success
top-down effect of top predator
43
eyrie/aerie
the nest of a bird (such as an eagle or hawk) built high up on a cliff or on the top of a mountain
44
bald eagle kleptoparasitism
pirates ducks captured by peregrine falcons, peregrines must increase kill rate (0.05/hr - 0.18/hr) to compensate
45
Urban Barred Owl
in BC 30-40yrs, succesful in urban area b/c of rat prevalence
46
Barred owl range expansion
displacing Northern Spotted Owl, major habitat/diet overlap
47
Barred owl removal
lethally removed, spotted owl population recovered in that area
48
Cooper's Hawk diet
small-med size birds = majority of diet, American Robin, European Starling (invasive), House Sparrow (invasive)
taking advantage of invasives
49
fraser delta raptor poisoning
carbofuran and fensulfothion persisted long enough in wet, low pH conditions of Fraser Delta to kill waterfowl and cause secondary poisoning of raptors months after application of the pesticides
50
BC nesting seabirds
15 species
5-6million
500 nest sites
51
best evidence supporting tetrapods on land 7400mya
fossil tracks
molecular data ambiguous
limbs occurred before move to land
52
the transition from dinosaurs to birds is characterized by
NOTHING
there is no transition
birds are dinosaurs
53
what is the major characteristic that allowed the evolution of flight in bids
low wing loading
| birds are not the only animal that fly's
54
loons are most closely related to
cormorant, albatross, pelican
| aquatic/seabirds
55
changes in seabird abundance from 1980 - present
25% reduction in piscivores
| 75% reduction in pigeon guillemot
56
how do we measure changes in seabird abundance on our coast
no long term records
sediment cores
tree cores
57
sediment cores for determining changes in seabird abundance
guano reduction
58
The Guano Era
1845-1870
| US annexed SP islands to extract guano, traded extensively for fertilizer
59
results of measuring bird abundance with tree cores
significant decrease in tree ring width in the area where trees were found to have burrows, likely due to decrease in burrowing bird density, decrease in guano (nutrients)
60
one problem with the tree ring method
small trees have lower N demand, can be picky, higher isotopic fractionation (this is the centre rings of the tree)
61
Gill nets
widespread (legal and illegal)
1million km of gillnet/yr, 300km/day
abandoned nets
In 1980's asian commercial fishing used gill nets to 8m depth
62
seabirds and gillnets
100,000 - 715,000 drowned/yr
60% shearwater
25% tufted puffin
63
seabird-boat collision during darkness
largest impact - nocturnal fliers
| bird attracted to light (law) and hit mast or rigging @ high speed
64
nocturnal fliers
auklets, murrelets, petrels
65
boat collision bird kill
1 night ~35petrels on deck, more in water?
| 1 40ft boat in Aleutian chain during spring snow storm had a 30,000 alcid, petrels kill in one night
66
offshore drilling and seabirds
routine blowouts- burn off natural gas extracted w/ oil (can be seen from space), seabirds fly into it
67
offshore drilling birdkill
10-100 puffins and murres/night/platform
68
oil tanker spill
Exxon Valdez
| 250,000 birds killed, 90species, 75% murres
69
freighters and seabirds, oil pollution in Newfoundland
1998-2000 average 315,000 murres and dovekies killed annually from illegal discharges of oil
incidence of oil pollution among the highest in the world
70
Cormorants: the world's most hated bird?
people killing them because they eat fish
500,000 killed since 1998
won't fix their perceived problem- prey are set by carrying capacity
71
Commercial fishing
depletion of herring population, sardine population, chum, huge decrease in estimated escapement
wide impacts
72
escapement
portion of anadromous fish population that escapes commercial/recreational fisheries and reaches freshwater spawning grounds
73
where does salmon carcass go
raven, crow, bear, marten, eagle, gull, invertebrates, plants
74
gulls and salmon run
most abundant vertebrate during salmon migration
| found to consume ~20% of salmon carcass biomass and ~30% of salmon eggs
75
fishing down the foodweb
puts us more in competition with seabirds
76
importance of salmon return
highly correlated w/ many species abundance
| important for winter 'bulk up'
77
passerines and salmon run
salmon carcass-- insects-- songbirds
78
alien species that impact seabird colonies
Norway rat
Raccoon
Fox
79
importance of primary productivity distribution
highly correlated w/ seabird distribution
highest in N hemisphere
affected by T anomalies
80
T shift and Cassin's Auklet
less successful in warm water
| match-mismatch hypothesis
81
match-mismatch hypothesis
prey timing key factor in success
climate changes alter trophic interactions
T shift-- bloom shift (timing)-- not available at usual bird nesting time
82
BC mammals #
~150 species
83
BC mammals, native vs. introduce #
native - 136 species
| introduced - 13species
84
BC mammals, terrestrial vs. marine #
terrestrial - 120 species
| marine - 30 species
85
Mammal skull fenestra
one fenestra
| synapsid
86
basal tetrapod fenestra
no fenestra
anapsid
acanthostega
87
BC mammal orders
```
Carnivora - canines, bears,..
Primates - aboriginals
Rodentia - mouse, squirrel
Lagomorpha - Hare
Insectivora - Shrew
Chiroptera - Bats
Artiodactyl - ungulates
Marsupial - opossum
```
88
most diverse group of mammals on the planet
Rodentia
| squirrel, chipmunk, beaver, mice, gopher, porcupine
89
synapsid origin
carboniferous
90
synapsid radiation
first group of amniotes that diversified (before diapsid)
91
synapsids were most abundant tetrapods when
Paleozoic
92
mammal body size
10-500kg
93
Pelycosaurs
Dimetrodon, tailback, carnivorous, herbivorous, sprawling limbs, long toes
Laurasia- warm, moist
94
Pelycosaur jaw
teeth mostly homodont except canine
| first evidence of tooth differentiation
95
end of permian, mammals
most life dies, therapsids survive, diapsids take over, rise of large croc., mammals almost extinct from Jurassic, re-diversify KTB
96
Pelycosaur thermoregulation
elongated neural spines, heavily vascularized, thermoregulation, some of first modifications towards endothermy
97
homodont teeth
all the same
98
mammal lower jaw
1 bone - dentary
only bone with teeth
(3 bones including hinge)
99
mammal jaw hinge
articular (bottom) and quadrate (top)
100
Therapsids time
early Permian
101
Therapsid characteristics
```
very large temporal fenestra
tooth differentiation
palate development
pelvic and pectoral girdles
limbs thinner, joints more flexible
short foot, toes
limbs move for upright posture
```
102
almost all modern mammal teeth type
heterodont
103
Therapsid tooth differentiation
incisors
canines
post-canine
104
why arched palate?
breathe and eat
105
why short foot/toes?
running faster
106
importance of hind limb muscles in mammal development
movement of limbs without moving entire body side to side
| muscles connected to iliac blade rather than lateral process
107
where therapsids diversified
Laurasia and Gondwana
| cooler, less aquatic habitats
108
Therapsid size
rodent - cow
109
Dominant terrestrial tetrapods of the late Permian
Therapsids
110
Major Therapsid extinction end of Permian, 3 groups survive
dicynodonts
theriodonts
cynodonts
111
dicynodonts
herbivore, loss of molar teeth, horny sheath (like turtle), two tusks, derived jaw articulation- lateral movement for grinding
112
Theriodonts
dominant predator, coronoid process on dentary
113
coronoid process
a flattened triangular projection above the angle of the jaw where the temporalis muscle is attached-- increased jaw closing strength
114
cynodonts
dog-sized carnivore, multicast molars, enlarged coronoid process
115
evolution of iliac process
evolution of running
116
fate of 3 remaining therapsid groups
displaced by diapsids in Tri, mostly extinct by end of Triassic
117
cynodont fate
progressive reduction in size, several small groups persist through K
118
persistent cynodonts
zygomatic arch, sculpted, heavily vascularized jaw, surface glands, enlarged infraorbital foramen, innervated face, turbinate bones, possible heterothermy or fully endothermic, 7 cervical vertebrae
119
infraorbital foramen
sensory nerves to brain (for innervated face)
120
innervated face
whiskers
121
turbinate bones
reabsorb water when exhale, present in almost all endotherms, important indicator
122
heterothermy
animals that exhibit characteristics of both poikilothermy and homeothermy
123
poikilotherm
organism whose internal temperature varies considerably. It is the opposite of a homeotherm, an organism which maintains thermal homeostasis
124
nocturnality
widespread amounts mammals, possibly ancestral behavioural pattern, appeared early in synapsid history (before mammals)
125
zygomatic arch
cheek bone, temporal bar arches behind the orbit, allow masseter muscle to attach to lower jaw
126
First True Mammal
Morganucodon, evolved from small bodied cynodont, late Triassic, ~10cm in light (small rat)
127
cynodont-mammal transition
locomotion
nearly complete separation of nasal passage from mouth
turbinate bones
hair (whiskers)
lactation
dentary-squamosal jaw hinge
anisognathus jaw, precise occlusion of molar teeth
128
lizard locomotion, breathing
lateral undulations, air flows side to side rather than in and out
129
mammal locomotion, breathing
bounding locomotion, dorsoventral flexion, facilitates exhalation/inhilation
130
facilitated dorsoventral flexion, mammal breathing while running
loss of lumbar ribs
131
why its hard to trace the origin of endothermy
attribute of the 'soft anatomy' which does not fossilize
132
soft anatomy of endothermy
complex lungs, elevated blood oxygen carrying capacity, mitochondrial density
133
fossilized parts of endothermy
nasal turbinates - may have evolved in association w/ origin of elevated ventilation rates
134
evolution of 'mammalian' oxygen consumption rates
Late Permian, 260mya
| Therocephalia & Cynodontia, independently
135
how long for the full evolution of mammalian endotherm
40-50million years
136
muscles required for lactation
major facial muscles- generating a suction seal
137
when was transition from cynodont to true mammal
Cenosoic (probably Jurassic)
138
why did endotherms fall at the end of the paleozoic
oxygen crash
139
isognathus jaw
polyphyodont teeth
| reptiles, early synapsids
140
anisognathus jaw
diphydont teeth
| Cynodont, modern mammal
141
Poluphyodont
continuous tooth replacement
142
Diphydont
2 successive sets of teeth
| milk teeth, and adult teeth with enamel
143
Cretaceous mammals
very small (shrew-rabbit size)
insectivore (from teeth)
3 major groups
144
Cretaceous mammal groups
Allotheria
Prototherian
Therians
145
Allotheria
```
Multituberculates
rodent-like
longest-lived mammalian group (100my)
arboreal, fossorial (feet)
complex, multicasted teeth - grinding
possible early distinct branch of cynodont
```
146
Allotheria time
Jurassic - Eocene
| longest lived mammalian group
147
Allotheria distribution
predominantly Laurasia (N)
148
Prototheria
monotremes
| triangular teeth, extant, early branch of mammals, lay eggs, heterothermic, cervical ribs,
149
extant prototherians
duck-billed platypus, echidna
| Australia & New Guinea
150
Prototheria distribution
Gondwana (S hemisphere, Australia, SA)
151
Therians
live birth, mammae, cochlea, external ear, tricuspid molars, major pectoral girdle modification
152
Types of therians
marsupials
| placentals
153
mammae
a milk-secreting organ of female mammals
154
Tehran cochlea
>2.5 coils
155
Therian pectoral girdle
for increased mobility
156
Metatherians
Marsupials - opossum, Tasmanian devil, koala, kangaroo
157
Marsupial characteristic
arboreal, omnivorous, heterothermy,
158
Marsupial birthing
give birth to altricial young-- crawl into pouch-- fuse to nipple
159
marsupial origin
oldest fossils found in NA
160
marsupial radiation
NA-- Europe-- Africa-- SA in Cretaceous
| Across Antarctica-- Australia in Paleocene
161
Europe/Asia/Africa extinction of marsupials
mid-cenozoic
162
why NZ has no marsupials
separated from Australia before origin of early mammals (monotremes)
163
Placentals
Eutherians
164
Eutherian characteristics
relative to marsupials: longer gestation, reduced lactation, fewer incisors&premolars, strict endothermy
165
Eutherian endothermy
almost entirely, except torpor (which is technically heterothermy)
166
early Eutherians
arose in Asia, shrew-like, insectivorous, minor contribution to fossil record until KTB
167
major groups of Eutherians
edentates, insectivores, primates, rodents, chiroptera, carnivora, ungulates, cetaceans, sirenians, proboscideans
168
edentates
anteaters
169
sirenians
manatee
170
proboscideans
elephant
171
Earth in late mesozoic
forests on all continents
N latitudes warm and wet
broad leaved vegetation
mt range uplift
172
late mesozoic distributions
crocodiles in arctic
dinos, arboreal/fossorial mammals
rodentia in late Cretaceous
Carnivora early Palaeocene
173
orogeny
Rockies, Andes, Himalays in the late Mesozoic, ~100mya
174
largest group of mammals
Rodentia - 40% of all current mammal species
175
most of major modern groups appeared in
early Eocene
176
earths temperature in Eocene
warm, colder towards end
177
genus numbers in the Cenozoic
fairly stable across paleocene, eocene
increase across oligocene
drops in middle of miocene
178
genus numbers and paleotemperature in Cenozoic
rise in oligocene ~correlated with decreased T (ice house world), slight lag
179
marsupials
~200
opossum group -77
kangaroo, koala, wombat - 110
180
rodentia
1800
181
rabbits
~70
182
insectivora
~400
183
flying lemurs
4
184
chiroptera
1000
185
carnivora
274
186
cetacea
80
187
Artiodactyla
~200
188
artiodactyla
even toed- pigs, hippo, deer, cattle
189
perissodactyla
odd-toed - horse, rhino, tapir
190
results of orogeny
vast rainshadows, reduced T (hot house - ice house) = first grasslands (Miocene)
191
Miocene grasslands
diversification of grass-dwelling ungulates (horse, antelope, elephants)
192
start of Pleistocene
gradual cooling, formation of icecaps, major northern hemisphere glaciation
193
mammals and marsupials
parallel adaptive radiation
common species in each group, ecologically equivalent
burrower, anteater, mouse, climber, glider, cat, wolf... not sea animals
194
what happened after dinosaur extinction
niche space opened for large carnivores (mostly mammals, some large carnivorous birds)
195
when were NA and SA separrated
from Jurassic - Late Cainozoic (100my)
| independent, separated diversification
196
Panamanian Isthmus
3my, connection between NA/SA
| allow interchange of species
197
GAI
great american interchange
asymmetric interchange
immigrants into NA mostly did not persist
50% of SA immigrants persisted, displaced native species
198
why was GAI asymmetric
NH colder
199
North American Pleistocene fauna
persist throughout glaciation
| at the time NA was as diverse as Serenghetti
200
some animals in NA pleistocene fauna
giant sloth, short faced bear, giant polar bear, california tapirs, peccaries, american lion, giant condor, american cheetah, sabre-toothed cats, dire wolves, gray wolf, camelids, llamas, bison, moose, ox, horses, mammoths
201
what happened to NA pleistocene fauna
impact event - extraterrestrial glass spheres
| fell in to caves and mummified- karstography, constant humidity (no bacterial degradation)
202
La Brea Geology
Rancho La Brea tar pits (LA)
so much oil in ground- sealed to surface- rain sits on top, looks like pond
prey get captured, predators come and get trapped too
203
La Brea skeletons
59 mammal species
135 bird species
skeletons completely in tact, but never together
204
Pleistocene overkill
NA 100,000-12,000ya: 45genera over 40kg
10,000y -present: 12 genera
humans overkill?
205
overkill hypothesis
extinctions correspond well with first significant evidence of human presence. human colonization dominant driver of extinction over climate events. very certain of results.
206
Puma concolor
Cougar
207
cougar characteristics
```
45-80kg
3m
nocturnal, solitary, ambush predator
jump 6m vertical, 13m horizontally
50km/h
largest back legs of any cat
```
208
cougar prey
>95% - deer/elk
| ~1 per week
209
cougar density
4000 in Canada
3500 BC
1/200km^2
210
cougar vs. wolf
interaction common
| both predator and prey
211
Cetacean length
```
Blue Whale 27m
Sperm Whale 18m
Humpback 15m
Gary Whale 15m
Orca 9m
Bottle-Nose Dolphin 2.5m
```
212
Odontocetes
```
toothed whales
smaller, fast moving
single blowhole
acoustic
chase prey
```
213
Killer Whale
```
Orcinus orca
Delphinids (dolphin)
3 types
female dominated social structure
tell apart by prey, dorsal fin, saddle patch, calls
```
214
Orca groups
resident
Bigg's (transient) - mammal eater
offshore - shark eater
215
Pacific white-sided dolphin
```
Lagenirhynchus obliquidens
Delphinids
often in groups
inshore and offshore
~7.5ft , gregarious, showy
```
216
Harbour porpoise
Phocoena phocoena
| Elusive, small group, acoustically sensitive, hybridize, ultrasonic frequency- one of highest frequencies of all mammal
217
Dall's porpoise
Phocoendoides dalli
Fastest cetacean in BC
often confused with orca
bow rider, hybridize, 'friendly', swim 55km/hr, splash
218
Sperm whale
Physter macrocephalous
| past shelf break, don't see often here, 1/3 body mass is head - sonar, echo location, fish in complete darkness
219
sperm whale length of time under water
up to 1hr
| 60min under water = 60 blows
220
BC Odontocetes
Orcas, Pacific white-sided dolphin, Harbour porpoise, Dall's porpoise, Sperm Whale
221
Mysticetes
```
baleen whales
larger bodies
two nostrils form blow hole
"moustached whale"
engulf prey
```
222
how to find patchy prey
get big, move efficiently through water -- bigger = bigger mouth = more efficient
223
Humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae
dorsal fin rests on hump
often solitary, migrator, acrobatic, primarily small fish feeders, fall anchovata populations
224
Gray Whale
Eschrichtius robustes
| solitary, population recovering from whaling, benthic feeder
225
Minke whale
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
| elusive, solitary, smallest baleen, common, sporadic, generally small fish feeder, can fall prey to orca
226
Fin whale
Balaenoptera physalus
commonly in offshore waters of N BC, second largest of all whales, density unknown, heavily whaled, very fast, ID by right lower lip
227
Sei whale
Balaenoptera borealis
| big target for whaling, drive herring, small fish feeder
228
Blue whale
Balaenoptera musculus
150 tonnes, population significantly reduced, largest animal on earth (possibly ever), not well known, not easily studied, driven off by sonar
229
North Pacific right whale
Eubalaena japonica
| huge baleen - up to 15ft, heavily whaled for baleen, copepod feeder
230
Pinnipedds
limbs resemble terrestrial animals, blubber and hair, tactile, vocal
Stellars Sealion, California sea lion, Harbour seals, Sea otter, River otter, Northern fur seal, Northern elephant seal
231
Mysticetes
Humpback whale, Gray whale, Minke whale, Fin whale, Sei whale, Blue whale, North Pacific right whale
232
Pinniped acoustics
Adjusted for under and above water hearing
233
Stellar's Sealion
Eumetopias jubatus
spp. moterirnsis (Laughlin's), haulout, mate at rookeries, sexually dimorphic m>>f, roar, can rotate hind quarters to pull themselves up (unlike seals)
234
California sea lion
Zalophus californianus
| Bark, sexual dimorphic, polygamous, dog-like face, crest on front of head @ sexual maturity
235
Harbour Seals
Phoca vitulina richardsi
common, 'true'/earless seal, rarely fight, eyes change shape for in/out water, territorial, don't like to touch each other
236
Sea otter
Ehydra lutris
| Heaviest weasel, smallest marine mammal, fur not blubber, rarely leave water, dive deep for food, backwards feet
237
River otter
Lontra canadensis
| versatile on land/water, den builder, latrine sites,
238
thickest/most dense hair of all mammals
sea otter
| traps air
239
Northern fur seal
Callorhinus ursinus
| rare here, up to 7ft, 'true' seal, f live 3X males
240
Northern elephant seal
Mirounga angustirostgis
| 'trunk' in male, f
241
Cetacean live capture
endangered southern residents for zoo/marine park
primary destabilization
over capture of almost all marine organisms
242
Cetacean tourism
whale watching, marine parks, aquariums
| effects of acoustics not well known
243
Cetacean entanglement
follow prey into traps, derelict fishing gear
244
Cetacean pollution
lipophilic chemicals stick to blubber- especially calves
245
persistence (pollution)
affects duration in environment after release
246
volatility (pollution)
affects transport in atmosphere
247
water solubility (pollution)
affects transport in rivers, runoff, ocean currents
248
bioaccumulation potential (pollution)
affects concentrations at higher trophic levels
249
Cetaceans, climate change
reduced arctic sea ice- move into foraging area sooner-- larger more robust offspring
CO2 emissions, acidification, implications for cetaceans not well known
250
Cetaceans, vessel traffic
major increase- strikes, noise
behavioural changes, auditory disturbance, interactions
go through 'best whale routes'
251
ocean noises (Hz)
seismic 1-100
ship traffic 10-1kHz
bubbles/spray 100-100kHz
252
ocean hearing (Hz)
seals/sea lions-100-100kHz
Baleen whale- 10-10kHz
Dolphin- 100-100
Porpoise- 1kHz-100kHz
253
hydophone
set up to listen to whale migration
400lb anchor chain
acoustic release
deployed hyrdophone
254
AMAR
Autonomous Multichannel Acoustic Recorder
255
AMAR deployment
February & May 2015
64&133 days recording
~50&20m water depth
Flores island (feeding ground)
256
grey whale migration
S (breeding) - N (feeding)
257
considerations with AMAR
can't be too close to shore (wave noise)
258
acoustic release system/ pop-up
'call' the pop-up and the 'egg' separates and reals the line back in
259
ocean glider movement
ballast- changing weight, takes on water to sink
260
winter population estimate of cougars in southeastern BC
3.5 cougars/100km^2
261
average home range of male cougar in southeastern BC
151km^2
262
Current cougar populations
declining
increased conflicts btw cougars/humans
92% of mortalities in collared cougars from hunting
average survival rate 59%
263
cougar reproduction stat
average litter 2.53
inter birth interval 18mnth
75% of females reproductively successful
264
Canada Lynx
Lynx canadensis
| nocturnal, solitary, ambush, pursuit, mostly canadian shield area (prevalent hare), hunted for pelt
265
Lynx prey
snowshoe hare, rodents, birds
266
cougar unique pelage
unique that it is always the same across wide range of habitats
267
cougar physiological jumping mechanisms
disproportionately large pelvic apparatus for leaping (frog-like)
268
BC Canidae
Grey Wolf
Coyote
Red Fox
269
Wolf paw
middle pads > outside pads
| dogs opposite
270
Canada phylogeny
(Dog - Grey wolf) - coyote
sister groups
red fox far separated
271
Canis lupus
Grey wolf
| packs, territorial, numerous vocalizations, formerly one of worlds most widely distributed mammals
272
Grey wolf pack
mated pair, juveniles&yearlings
273
Grey wolf territorial
scent marking, fights, death, 1/3 of natural mortality
274
grey wolf reproductive
adults suppress reproductive attempts in family, 60 day incubation, 6 pups at birth, pups 400g, blind 10 days, suckling 3 weeks, remain in pack up to 4years, parents regurgitate food
275
coastal rainforest wolves
taller, dark (brown like deer, don't run in packs
276
Canis latrans
Coyote
| explicitly NA, not on coast
277
BC Ursidae
Brown bear/Grizzly bear
| Black bear
278
Ursidae phylogeny
{ [(brown- polar) -(asiatic black- american black) - sun bear - sloth bear ] - spectacled bear } Giant Panda
279
Ursidae sister group
Procyonidae (Raccoon, Lesser Panda)
280
Brown/Grizzly bear
```
Ursus arctos
summer-alpine
spring/summer-estuaries
autumn- salmon
predator - wolves
predatory, scavenger, omnivore
```
281
Black bear
```
Ursus americanus
majorly forest habitat
autumn-salmon
predator- grizzly, wolves
predatory, scavenger, omnivore
```
282
Ursidae distribution
Ursus arctos- across N hemisphere
| Ursus americanus- only NA
283
black bear, winter
den in high elevation caves, low elevation large tress (avoid grizzly's), if no grizzly den anywhere (VI)
284
distinct grizzly group
ABC bear, off coast of Alaska, N of HG. On islands: Admiralty, Baronof, and Chichagof
unique genetic structure, relates them to brown & polar bear
285
polymorphic pelage/plumage
occurrence of 2 or more discontinuous colour morphs (genotypes) w/i a pop.
rarest cannot be maintained by mutation alone
286
polymorphic colouration does not apply to
```
ontogenetic variation (ex. deer, spots-brown)
seasonal variation (ex.arctic hare)
```
287
Considerations in polymorphic colouration
```
heritability
frequency of morphs
geographical distribution
sex-linked?
ecologically functional/nuetral
historical
genetic linkage/pleiotropy
advantages/disadvantages
```
288
reindeer polymorphism
lighter - more warble flies, decrease body mass
| colour variation > in semi-domesticated, less impacted by parasitism (treatment)
289
white horses
high sensitivity to UV radiation, frequent skin cancer, predation risk
blood-sucking tabard flies less attracted to white horses (polarized light)
contrasting ecological pressure
290
spirit bear
Ursus americanus kermodei
Kermode bear
coastal black bears
known >100years
291
Kermode through time
1906- $30 for a head
1912- thought almost extinct, 25 specimens known, $250 reward for live specimen
1924- prize/tourist attraction in beacon hill park
292
frequency of white polymorphism
Gribbell - 25% (1/4)
Princess Royal - 10%
Mainland - less than 1%
293
black bear species inland
Ursus americanus americanus
294
kermode bear polymorph gene
same gene that produces white phases in mice, horses, etc. common gene mutation that knocks out melanin
mutation at melanocortin 1 receptor gene
295
colour combinations, kermode
every mother-cub colour combination found, random mating structure - no sexual colour preference
296
Kermode, glacial relict
colour beneficial during glaciation (as it is in polar bears), left over from then
297
Kermode, glacial relict, still beneficial?
not found in high latitudes
| no benefit in this way
298
Dr. Blood :(
black bear has few natural enemies, largely a vegetarian, logging/land use are fine
299
neutral mutations
in isolated populations can remain by default/chance
300
Kermode, neutral mutation
there is new gene inputs (swim overs from mainland), phenotype % remains ~constant over 10,000yrs, neutral alleles almost always dropped in small populations (doesn't seem to be neutral)
301
neutral alleles, drosophola
low population = low heterozygosity = almost always single genotype
302
why chance mutations are higher in small population
inbreeding, bottlenecks, small number of breeders, disproportional contributions
303
over dominance in fitness
heterozygote > fitness than homozygote
hetero. often have better immunological
hetero. maintained b/c of beneficial condition
304
over dominance in fitness also called
heterozygote advantage
305
If a polymorphism is controlled by heterozygote advantage would expect to see
excess of heterozygotes
306
Kermode and heterozygote advantage
cannot be the case b/c there is a deficiency of heterozygotes
307
Kermode bear, assortative mating
W*W, B*B
| disproven by the cub combinations, would have lead to loss of uncommon morph
308
Mainland geneflow retaining white allele?
gene flow is extremely dominantly black allele, mainly is more than 90% B, would reduce white gene frequency
309
Multi-niche polymorphism
2+ morphs occupy different niche space
| different phenotypes have greater fitness for different niche type
310
Multi-niche polymorphism, why?
Day/night?
behavioural interaction- dominant/submissive?
foraging technique?
salmon capture success?
trophic differences-stable isotope analysis?
311
Black bear diel activity pattern
lowest in the mid afternoon, can't see well at low light, mainly only coast black bears hunt nocturnally
polymorphs forage at same time of day
312
Black/white kermode behavioural interaction
in ~400 interactions found black bears dominate encounter in dark (small n), and no dominance in day, overall dominance was more related to body size than colour
313
black vs white foraging skill, kermode
white bear is a more stationary forager, stand and wait technique
black bear walks and runs
difference in foraging technique
314
black vs. white salmon capture efficiency
dark- black slight advantage
| light- white significant advantage (stand, walk, AND run!) major daylight advantage
315
stable isotope analysis of kermode bear hair on Gribbell Isl
Spring, Summer ~same 15N
| Fall- white much higher 15N
316
Why white bear has slightly higher 15N signature in spring/summer
feeding on barnacles
317
isotope analysis conclusion
WB salmon specialist
| Fall- feed almost entirely on salmon
318
Isotope analysis, Princess Royal
WB/BB ~same 15N
| more variation in individuals than on Gribbell
319
marine isotope signature
high 13carbon and 15nitrogen
320
white bear allele frequency
Gribbell 56%
PR 33%
Mainland 0-20%
321
white bear population estimate
Gribbell 8-15 (40-50bears)
| PR 10-40 (200bears)
322
why WB allele higher on Gribbell
almost fully segregate niche space, higher proportion of white bears increases the populations speciality and take over niche
323
why WB allele lower on PR
larger niche space = more competition, constraints
324
evasiveness of salmon to simulated predator
dark - no difference
| light - fewer salmon return than at night, ~2X as many return to white 'bear'
325
why are salmon less evasive to white bear
Snell's window, refraction
326
Snell's window
underwater viewer sees everything above surface through a cone of width of ~96º, area outside window either completely dark or a reflection of underwater objects
327
Gribble island salmon biomass
~300kg/yr (salmon ~2kg)
| 1 bear requires ~300-500 salmon
328
where there is grizzly bear
black bears don't eat salmon, white bear won't persist if grizzly invade their islands
329
polymorphism as 'super gene'
often groups of genes working together
330
Artiodactyla
even-toed ungulates
| Elk, Mt goat, Bighorn, Deer, Moose, Caribou
331
BC Elk
2 species- Roosevelt, Rocky Mountain
formerly most widely distributed ungulate
population collapse from human predation
332
Roosevelt Elk
Mostly E side of province, some on N VI
now live in second growth, not original habitat
extinct across much of previous range
333
Mountain Goat
```
adapted for steep terrain, snow cover
2nd longest hair shaft length of ungulates
birth on steep cliffs
low predation
no colour phases
```
334
Mountain goat predation
golden eagle
335
Mountain goats travel to
salt licks, up to 9 visits/yr, up to 17km away
| areas not included in protection zone, resource development difficulty
336
Bighorn Sheep
highly diverse habitat (slopes-deserts), mainly treeless areas, limited in BC, mostly SE corner of province
337
Resource separation by fire
burning modifies ecosystem- attracts ungulates- changes animal distribution
elk populations moving in to traditional range of other grazing species (Sheep)
338
Mule/Black-tailed deer distribution
most of BC except NW corner, high on islands
339
White-tailed deer distribution
only on E side of BC
340
Tell Mule/black-tailed and white-tailed apart
white-tail: tip of tail is white, white bum only visible if tail lifted, antler prongs come off of main beam
Mule deer: dark tipped tail, antlers fork
341
Moose distribution
right across circumboreal
| never coastal in the past, moving in now, likely due to prey
342
In Europe Moose are
Elk
343
Woodland Caribou
Rangifer tarandus
same species as reindeer in Europe
a little farther N in range than Moose
keystone species
344
Reduction in Caribou population
~70% reduction in high-quality habitat, not only cause of decline, multifactorial
345
Criminal Code of Canada, Animal Cruelty
Every one commits an offence who willfully causes or, being the owner, willfully permits to be caused unnecessary pain, suffering, or injury to an animal or a bird
346
Criminal Code of Canada, Animal Cruelty punishment
indictable offence, liable to imprisonment of 5 years, or fine of up to $10,000
347
Maintaining Ethical Standards during Conservation Crises
first example of scientists using criminal code to evaluate scientific work (and put their necks on the line), journal of wolf cull study (CJZ) would not publish
348
cost of removing BC wolves
180 wolves - $2 million (helicopter cost)
349
VI Marmot past distribution
only alpine, males travel all the way down and up to other side for reproduction, dangerous travelling through forest, high predation, low survival
350
VI Marmot population
last ~40 years- population plummeted
| deforestation allows corridors for predators
351
VI Marmot reintroduction
Artificial reproduction in Toronto Zoo, reintroduce on VI, very successful
2003- 70 adults, 1 litter born in wild
352
VI marmot status
critically endangered
353
BC Marmots
hoary, olympic, VI
| distinct skulls, unknown if they can interbreed
354
BC Marmot phylogeny
flaviventris (yellow-bellied) is outgroup, olympus sister group to vancouverensis
355
BC Bat species
16 species
356
White-nose syndrome
major bat die off in E NA
expanding Westerly
not yet in BC
357
Keen's Myotis
little brown bat, red-listed, unusual, poorly known, distinct, no breeding colonies known until found among heated rocks
358
Oscines orca found
all oceans, most common within 200km of shoreline
359
Orca size
f- 8m
| m- 10m
360
orca pod
family stays together, form a pod of different matrilines, related pods form a clan with similar vocal dialect
361
matriline
line of descent from female ancestor to descendant (of either sex) in which the individuals in all intervening generations are mothers – in other words, a "mother line"
362
ID'ing orca
Dorsal fin, saddle patch distinctive among individuals, determine demography from photo
363
demography
science of populations to understand population dynamics investigate: birth, migration, and aging
364
Study Orca demography, M. Bigg
construct life table w/ decades of photos, first use of procedure, found ages 2-3X greater than though
365
implications of Orca demography study
assumed ages/generation times used to determine quota of IWC, resulted in curtailment of Russian orca harvest in antarctica
366
IWC
International Whaling Commission
367
HWR
height to width ratio of dorsal fin
| proxy for age
368
Orca ages
peak 20-30years
data up to ~90years
past thought peak 10yrs, max 30yrs
369
orca genetic diversity
low, suspected pleistocene bottleneck 170,000ybp, diversification prior to last glacial advance 30,000ybp, common ancestor 700,000ya
370
most genetically distinct orca
transient, separated first
371
resident orca prey
fish eaters, specialists for Chinook, survival highly correlated w/ chinook survival, limiting factor of population dynamics (even though they consume other fish)
limited in ability to adapt
372
orca travel distance
~100km/day while in one area
| ~160km/day when travelling, ~5,500 km/month
373
length of VI
Length: 460km (3 days by whale)
Width: 100km
coastline length: 3,400km (20 days by whale)
374
BC forestry economics
```
$6.6 billion/yr direct revenue
ministry- 15.6billion/yr
2.5% of gov't revenue
6.3% of BC jobs
18,000 direct jobs
```
375
BC ecotourism economics
$13.8 billion/yr
| 132,000 direct jobs
376
forests succesions
bare ground-- primary succession-- pioneer seral stage-- seral stages-- secondary succession-- climax
377
forestry and successions
takes climax forest, sends it back in seral stages
378
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, Ogota Japan
```
16 resident whales
whale watching $3mil/y
life span 30 yrs
$60mill in 20yrs
whaling $4.3mill for 16
15:1 in favour of whale watching
```
379
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, South Africa
wildlife tourism $6bil/y
trophy huntin $2.1 mil/yr
3000:1 in favour of wildlife viewing
380
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, Palau
100 sharks
scuba $18mil/yr
fishing for fin/meat $10,000/y
1800:1 for tourism
381
Forestry vs. ecotourism argument, BC bear hunt
Total GDP contribution Bear viewing $9.5mil
Bear hunting $669,000
15:1 in favour of tourism
382
BC bear population estimate
2004 - 17,000
2008- 16,000
2012- 15,000
383
GBR
great bear rainforest
384
MRL
maximum recorded longevity (captivity)
385
small song bird MRL
less than 2yr in wild but 20yr in captivity
386
large song bird MRL
10yr in wild, 28 in captivity
387
gulls, ravens MRL
~60-70yr (captivity)
388
owl, parrot MRL
100yr (captivity)
389
max age of birds
~2X greater in captivity than wild
390
probability of yearly mortality, adult bird
~50%
391
Senescence
loss of DNA repair, accumulation of mutations, build up anti-oxidant enzymes, increased free radicals, loss of homeostasis, altered gene expression
392
mammal MRL
```
mouse - 4yr
toad - 20yr
cat 20-40yr
dog 10-30yr
horse 50-60yr
elephant 80-90yr
humpback whale ~50yr
tortoise - potentially over 100
```
393
log max longevity vs. log body mass
log longevity linearly increasing with log body mass
| large animals live longer
394
log max longevity vs. log body mass, bird, mammal
bird higher and steeper sloped
birds ~1.7X MRL of mammals of equal mass
yet bird BMR 3X mammals
395
why large spread in MRL
```
function of extrinsic processes
high probability of mortality in first years = early reproduction, r-selection, make offspring at expense of maintaining body
```
396
If species has high probability of evading predators in early life
natural selection favour development of defences and subsequently improved physiological repair abilities; long-lasting immune system, anti-aging/anti-radical defence
397
example of high probability of evading predators
spikes, hard shell, flight, apex predator, large
398
animals with high mortality in early life
small, soft body
399
biomechanics for longer life
superoxide-mutase (anti-oxidant enzyme)
tissue tolerance to chemical stress
cellular longevity
400
naked mole rat
subterranean, extraordinarily long lived, size of mouse, greater than 30yr, longest living rodent, negligible senescence, no age related mortality rate, resistant to cancer, live in full darkness w/ a queen, low O2, high CO2, poikilothermy, hairless
401
Proteus
human fish, olm
| blind salamander, limestone caves, no pigment, no eyes, no predators, extreme lifespan over 100yrs
402
Caenorhabditis elegans, spaceflight
suppressed aging, inactivated genes that extended on ground lifespans, aging slowed through neuronal and endocrine response to space enviro. cues
403
down regulating genes that control these peptides led to longer lifespan, elagans, earthworm
```
acetylcholine receptor
acetylcholine transporter
choline acetyltransferase
rhodopsin-like receptor
glutamate-gated chloride channel
potassium channel
insulin-like peptide
```
404
Estimating age in long-lived tetrapods
```
yearly growth rings
photo-id or mark/release
fatty acid ratio
racemization
epigenetic marker
```
405
yearly growth rings in tetrapods
teeth, eye lens, ear bones, ear plugs
406
chiral molecules
molecules existing in two forms, mirror images, rotate polarized light left or right, occur in equal proportion in meteorites
Ratio of D/L =1
407
biological tissue chiral molecules
use only left (levorotatory) amino acids (L-amino) D/L = 0
| right (dextrorotatory) glucose (D-glucose) D/L =1
408
L/D enantiomers
completely different function/response
409
racemization
one enantiomer such as L-amino acid, converts to the other enantiomer. The compound alternates between each form while the ratio approaches 1:1, (racemic mixture)
410
racemization in animal
L-amino acid incorporated into bone-- racemization-- accumulate D-enantiomer until racemic mix reached. can be used for dating
411
racemization of living narwhale
L-aspartic acid to D-aspartic acid in nucleus of eye lense
412
DNA methylation
epigenetic mechanism used by cells to control gene expression; signaling tool that can fix genes in the “off” position
413
DNA methylation aging
predicts age from skin samples, can be applied to non model wild organisms
414
Nunatak
glacial island
exposed, often rocky element of a ridge, mountain, or peak not covered with ice or snow within (or at the edge of) an ice field or glacier.
415
Ice sheets ~180,000ya
Laurentide
| Cordilleran
416
Beringia
northern glaciation refugia
417
past glaciation/refugia theory
18,000ya northern&southern refugee, 13-10000ya cordilleran ice sheet melts and colonization occurs from S
418
implication of past glaciation theory
all species (plant/animals) in BC have colonized in last 10,000yrs, mostly from S
419
relictual species
remnant ecosystems, species persisting through glaciation
420
evidence for relictual species
disjunct distribution
| unique species/subspecies
421
relictual species, unique species
VI marmot, Nebria, dawson's caribou, stickleback, unique black bear subspecies
422
BC black bear phylogeny
2 deeply separated lineages, continental and coastal
423
endemism
species being unique to a defined geographic location
424
haplotype
a set of DNA variations/ polymorphisms, that tend to be inherited together: combination of alleles or set of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on same chromosome
425
BC wolves
coastal (sea wolves) differ from continental
426
other animals with distinct coastal/continental subspecies
Marten, short-tailed weasel, dawson's caribou (extinct 1915), marmot, brown bear
427
coastal/continental lineages suggest
some type of coastal refugia, otherwise would expect one lineage after glacial (everything would have been wiped out)
428
relic grizzlies
restricted to 3 small islands, dwarfed size, closest relative to polar bear, "ABC" bear
429
landbird relics
estimated divergence dates 20-120,000ybp, suggest HG area was forested refugium in late Pleistocene
430
port Eliza cave evidence
laminated clays, diverse vertebrate fauna, aging shows brief ice cover (15.5-14ka), sea level close to cave, salmon runs, cool, open parkland, cool temperatures
431
K1 cave, Queen Charlottes
skeletons dated to 14,000ya, very close to glacial max, must have been an open space for large animals
432
sea level, 14000ya
150m below present
| dates artifacts = humans by 10,000ya, migration route, most likely refugia
433
Exotic tetrapods in BC
Green frog, bull frog, european grey partridge, californai quail, domestic pigeon, european starling, house sparrow, ring-necked pheasant, wild turkey, virginia opossum, european rabbit,e astern cottontail rabbit, eastern Gray squirrel, rats, house mouse, amerindians, europeans
434
Aliens, Green frog
from NE US, introduced before 1940
435
Alines, bull frog
probably from Washington, non intentional, huge impact, high predatory and competitive pressure, carrier of Chytrid fungus
436
european grey partridge
introduced in 1870 for hunting, now widespread
437
California Quail
introduced 1860, common on VI
438
Domestic pigeon
from Europe to E Canada 1600, now widespread in urban
439
European Starling
from Europe 1910, BC in 1947, widespread in urban
440
house sparrow
from Europe 1850, BC 1890, widespread rural and urban
441
ring-necked pheasant
from asia, 1890, widespread
442
wild turkey
from US, 1960s, locally abundant
443
equilibrium niche space
none empty. if non-natives invade, it is at the expense of others
444
European rabbit
released, 1910
445
Eastern cottontail
natural from washington
446
eastern gray squirrel
introduced to stanley park 1915
447
rats
from europe on ships 1800-1900 (woodrat is native)
448
house mouse
from europe, 1800
449
Amerindians
12,000yrs marginal impacts apart from sea otter extirpation
450
europeans
'introduced' 1775, greatest impact of all species
451
impacts of exotics
new parasites, greatest density in disturbed habitat, major impacts in natural land adjacent to disturbed habitat
452
disturbed habitats
urban, roadside, rural properties, agriculture, predator-free zone
453
Introduced Canada geese
intentionally cross-bred in 60's to establish breeding population for harvest, spread exotic grasses (feces), decline native plant species abundance
454
Scott islands
largest aggregation of breeding seabirds in E Pacific ocean south of Alaska
455
changes to scott islands, aliens
large decline in seabird population due to american mink, raccoon (European rabbit also present but not found to have effect)
456
Cassin's Auklet, scott islands
Triangle island, Sartine island, bulk of worlds breeding population of Cassins auklet, selects grass-covered habitat, vegetation changes on these islands reduces reproductive success
457
Haida Gwaii, native vs alien plant species
native ~500
exotic ~140
143/657 = 22%
458
Haida Gwaii, native/nonnative mammals
native 12
introduced 14
14/26 = 54%
459
introduced mammals, haida gwaii
norway rat, raccoon, mink, muskrat, beaver, red squirrel, sitka deer, elk, feral cat, pheasant, tree frog, red-legged frog
460
non-native feedback
introduced plants bring in alien insects bring in higher trophic level aliens...
461
rats and seabirds, Queen Charlottes
seabird colony decline, predation from rats invade burrow-nests, especially ancient Murrelet, present on 18islands, Norway rat replaced black rat on Langara
462
Nestucca oil spill
December 23, 1988
Greys harbour washington, barge cable broke, tug backs into and punctures barge, release 231,000 gallons fuel oil, oil covers 100km WAS, over 200km VI, 56,000 bird deaths known, $5million fine
463
warfarin
sweet-clover, oral anticoagulant, inhibits Vit K formation, hemorrhaging, highly toxic, major global pesticide, odourless, tasteless, 100% mortality, slow death multiple days, internal bleeding and trauma, LD50 1mg/kg/day
464
second-generation super-warfarin
```
brodifacoum
LD50 0.3mg/kg/day
human death with less than 1% sugarcane mass
long lasting, 6months
worldwide rodenticide
```
465
eradicating rats, langara island, 1995
bate station: pipe with internal shelf, bated with brodifacoum, every 75-100m in concentric circles
funds: Nestucca oil spill settlement
technique: NZ study
duration: 2years
success, 10's of thousands of rats killed, seabirds back on the rise
466
adverse effect of eradicating rats on Langara
common raven greater than 50% mortality, risks of secondary poisoning, 15% of bald eagles blood tests showed detectable residue but no adverse affects found
467
racoon
```
formerly absent on HG, mainland and VI
introduced 1940
no predators
significant ooivore of ground nesters
more opportunistic than rats, very successful, swimmers- difficult to remove
```
468
Sitka deer, HG
```
1878- 8 introduce
1911- 28 released
1925- 3 released
2005- 150,000
low predation, no predator, no competitor
exponential population growth
```
469
Deer-vegetation interaction
browse line = height of animal, yearly growth very small below browse line, can't get large, bush like shape on bottom
470
dendrochronology
tree-ring dating
471
Moresby Island dendrochronology
ring width shows large convergence after 1990
472
tree defence
anti-browsers, monoterpene, volatile, physiologically costly, unnecessary without predator, attract wasps (predator of insects)
473
monoterpenes and browsing
lower in heavily browsed trees
| bitter
474
deer and understory invertebrates
deer-free -- 20yrs of deer -- 50years of deer
| significant decrease in abundance and species numbers of inverts (because of decreased vegetation diversity)
475
deer and pollinators
deer-free--20yr--50yr
| sig. decrease, no bumblebee on islands with deer greater than 50yr!
476
expected insects and pollinators on islands without deer
would expect highest numbers and diversity because they are the islands closest to the source land
477
deer and parasitoid insects
same pattern.. low plants, low insects with lots of deer (same pattern with songbirds as well)
478
deer impact pathway aboveground
deer browsing- change veg. - reduce understory abundance/diversity- fewer herbivores, pollinators - fewer predators, parasites
479
deer impact pathway on ground
browsing- change veg. - reduce litter and dry soil - fewer detritivorous inverts. - fewer predators
480
Songbirds use of shrubs
fruits
nectar
nest sites
insects
481
deer and songbirds
abundance in areas with deer more than 50yrs had 55-70% lower songbirds, deer overabundance may explain part of current continental-scale decrease in songbird populations
482
Louise Island
kill deer and monitor island, microsatellite marker genetics determine source population, find ~1/generation (2yrs) were migrating (swimming) from source land, eradication would have to be an ongoing event
483
Red squirrel introduction
for helping pick highly prized sitka spruce cones, when no cones left for squirrels they become ooivores and can sniff out the nest
484
avian dispersal of exotic shrubs
fruit, feces, higher palatability = higher dispersal, protection from humans insufficient to prevent exotic species establishment and loss of native biodiversity
