Ecology Part II Flashcards
1
Q
Major communities
A
Aquatic
Terrestrial
2
Q
Aquatic communities
A
Marine
Freshwater
3
Q
Marine communities
A
estuaries, intertidal, sub-tidal kelp beds, pelagic, deep sea, coral reefs
4
Q
Terrestrial communities
A
tundra, temperate coniferous forests, temperate deciduous forests, grasslands, deserts, tropical forests
5
Q
temperate coniferous forests
A
Boreal/Taiga
6
Q
Estuaries are
A
partially enclosed body of water where freshwater flows into the ocean and mixes with salt water
7
Q
Estuaries have
A
variable salinity, pH, sediments, nutrients, temperature
large # niches, biodiversity, productivity
8
Q
important estuary ecology
A
major stopover for migratory birds throughout world
ex. fraser estuary
9
Q
Different types of tides
A
MHWS, MHWN, MLWN, MLWS
Mean high/low water neap/spring
10
Q
smaller high/low tides
A
neap tide
11
Q
larger high/low tides
A
spring tides
12
Q
Emersion curve
A
MHWS, MHWN, MLWN, MLWS (ft) vs. % exposure to air (0-100)
MLWS- pretty much 0%
curve tends towards 100 towards MHWS
13
Q
Subtidal kelp bed ecology
A
high PP on planet
physical protection to shoreline communities
foraging/shelter for large # species
14
Q
Types of benthic communities
A
Hot vents
Glass Sponge reefs
Deep water coral reefs (bioherms)
15
Q
Arctic marine communities
A
frozen ocean surrounded by land ~4000m depth, ~3m ice upper 15m low salinity layering of Atl./Pac. water high summer plankton, cod, seals
16
Q
Antarctic communities
A
frozen continent surrounded by ocean ~98% ice up to 2km thick mountainous- up4500m low diversity- bacteria, lichen, penguins ocean high PP and diversity
17
Q
lake classifications
A
oligotrophic
dysotrophic
mesotrophic
eutrophic
18
Q
oligotrophic
A
clear water - low productivity
19
Q
dystrophic
A
stained lakes - low productivity
20
Q
mesotrophic
A
intermediate productivity
21
Q
eutrophic
A
high productivity
22
Q
lake stratification
A
separation of lakes into three layers- Epilimnion, Metalimnion, Hypolimnion
due to density change with temperature
23
Q
epilimnion
A
top of the lake
24
Q
metalimnion
A
thermocline
middle layer- may change depth throughout the day
25
hypolimnion
bottom layer
26
dimictic lake
lake water turns over during the spring and the fall due to the higher density colder water and of 4ºC water, lower density of ice and warm water
27
Tundra characteristics
3-6mnths dark, north America, north Europe/Asia ice/snow/permafrost
surface soil .5m thaws in summer
3 strata
28
tundra strata
soild
ground
low shrubs
29
tundra ecology
cold-hardy plants
aquatic/terrestrial insects
shorebirds, waterfowl, seasonal
hare, fox, wolves, caribou, grizz, polar bear
30
Temperate coniferous forests found
central interior north america/europe/asia
31
temperate rainforests found
west coast NA
32
Temperate coniferous forest characteristics
conifers, limited shrubs, ferns, moss, limited diversity
trees- monopodial growth
4 strata
short summer, long cold winter
33
conifers
spruce, hemlock, fir, cedar, pine
34
monopodial growth
grow upward from a single point, single trunk or stem
| to shed snow
35
temperate coniferous forest stratum
soil, ground, shrubs, trees
36
temperate coniferous forest ecology
slow decomposition (b/c of cold)
seasonal migrants
occasional hibernation/torpor (frozen)
37
temperate deciduous forest locations
below great lakes, WEurope - Italy, EChina- Japan
38
temperate deciduous forest characteristics
warm/wet summer, cold winter
| 5 strata
39
temperate deciduous forest stratum
```
upper canopy (large trees)
lower canopy (small trees)
shrub layer
ground layer (herbs, ferns, mosses)
soil (decomposer community)
```
40
temperate deciduous forest ecology
high species diversity
| seasonal migrants
41
prairies located
near temperate deciduous forests
| mid US, mid belt across Europe/Asia, SE SouthAmerica
42
Savannas located
southern tip of NA
belt down SA
Southern half of Africa
large parts of Australia
43
Grasslands
pairies
| savannas
44
Grassland characteristics
```
3 strata
2m deep roots (** water is limiting resource)
high evaporation
long droughts
soil moisture protected by mulch
```
45
grassland stratum
soil
ground
sparse trees (**important for shade, trees limiting resource)
46
grassland ecology
```
large grazers (buffalo)
small burrowing mammals
```
47
desert/semi desert found
30º belt of Europe, top half of africa, small parts of America, interior of Australia
48
desert characteristics
low rain, high T
| 3 strata
49
desert stratum
soil
ground
cactus
50
desert ecology
annual plants (if rainfall), succulents, desert shrubs
small, burrowing, seed-eating mammals
lizards
**nocturnality VIP
51
succulents
more than normally thickened and fleshy plants, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions
52
tropical forest location
equator- top of SA, mid Africa, SE of china, top E of Australia
53
tropical forest stratum
SIX strata- ABCDEF
A- emergent trees >60m (discontinuous)
B- up to 20m (discon.)
C- lowest trees (contin.)
D- shrub layer (tall herbs/ferns)
E- ground layer, herbaceous plants, seedlings
F- root/soil layer (shallow, poorly developed)
54
tropical forests A and E strata
connected by vines (Lianas)
55
tropical forest ecology
many epiphytes
high species diversity (most taxonomic groups)
high biological turnover
high nutrient recycling
56
tropical rainforest characteristics
incredibly rich/diverse
emergent trees have specific/unique bird/insect/epiphite communities
sympodial growth
57
emergent trees
grow way above other trees with unique communities
58
sympodial growth
outward growth (upside down triangle)
59
Temperate rainforest characteristics
very similar to temperate forests with oceanic processes moderating, more diversity, stabilized
60
Lianas
parasitic- conveyor belt of nutrients from ground to top of trees
61
air cells from top to bottom of globe
polar-- ferrell-- hadley-- hadley-- ferrel-- polar
62
most important factors for predicting biodiversity
temperature, moisture
63
hight T, high-low moisture
Tropical rain forest-- tropical forest-- savanna-- desert
64
mid T, high/mid - low moisture
temperate rain forest-- temperate forest-- grassland-- desert
65
low moisture, med/low - low T
Taiga, Tundra
| tundra = low T, low moisture
66
global trends in species abundance
taxonomic abundance and body size
aquatic vs. terrestrial
correlates of species richness-- latitude, depth and altitude
67
communities that grow back quickly
Taiga, grassland- N2 is in soil
68
communities that don't grow back quickly
savanna- N2 is above ground (trees)
| tropical rainforest- latterating soil washes away in rain
69
poorly developed root system in tropical rainforest
soils are thin and nutrient depleted
70
scarify soil
lossened and broken up
| needed for tropical rainforest regrowth
71
taiga clear cutting
20% reduction of growth after each clear cut
| slow depletion of soil
72
subsidence zones
~30/60º - where air sinks in each cell, cold/dry air - deserts
73
vertebrate body mass
most abundantly small, <100g
74
most common body mass
.001 - .01 g (b/c of insects)
75
most abundant species
insects, viruses/bacteria, fungi, arachnids, protozoans, algae, plants
(smallest species)
76
earth areas
aquatic 71%
| terrestrial 29%
77
earth aquatic/terrestrial species
aquatic- 2 million
| terrestrial - 10 million
78
predicted terrestrial species based on terrestrial area
700,000
| rapid cladogenesis on land?
79
correlation of species richness by latitude
many species much more abundant near equator (corals, fish, copepods)
80
don't see large change in species abundance by latitude in
benthic species (nematodes)
81
richest vascular plant areas
brazil, columbia, (on/below equator)
| china, mexico (above equator)
82
orchid species
>>> in tropics (up to 3000, compared to 40 in Canada)
83
tree species in NA
rely on isotherms
| higher species = higher T and P
84
reliant on tree species diversity
high tree diversity = high insect diversity = large # amphibians
85
most bird rich communities
colombia, peru, brazil, indonesia, ecuador, venezuela
86
diversity decreases
~linearly with elevation (altitude)
| plants, birds
87
species richness per ocean depth
intertidal richest
highest PP- arctic/antarctic
equator- high PP
algal bed/reefs, estuaries- smaller area-- very high productivity
88
why high PP in polar regions
continual turnover of water- almost always at max density
89
why equator high PP
meeting of nutrient laden gyre currents
90
largest biome on earth
deep sea
91
deep sea biodiversity
among the highest, macro/meiofauna
| high evenness
92
meiofauna
small benthic invertebrates
93
deep sea communities with extreme physiochemical processes
biodiversity low
abundance, biomass high
dominated by few species
94
peak deep sea diversity
intermediate depths
| 2000-3000m
95
high benthic diversity not recognized until
1960's-- fine mesh (250-500µm)
| 100 species/.25m^2 found
96
how far have bacteria been found
deepest layer of oceanic crust
1391m
oil drilling can reach 9km
97
mean net PP
```
g/m^2 yr
algal bed, reefs- 2500
tropics- 2200
temperate forest- 1300
estuaries- 1500
very high but small areas
```
98
world net PP
10^6 tonnes / yr
tropics - 37.4
open ocean - 41.5
cont- 56, ocean - 48
99
world biomass
```
10^6 tonnes
tropics- 765
open ocean - 1
algal beds/reefs - 1.2
estuaries - 1.4
cont-550, ocean-10
```
100
biological deserts
NPP < 250
desert, open ocean
cultivated land (mostly growing grasses)
101
phytoplankton productivity
short generation time
| small PP at a snapshot in time, very high over a yr
102
total bacteria biomass
~= all other PP biomass
103
ocean productivity
highest where large turnover (cold)
104
terrestrial productivity
highest where warm/wet (tropics)
| changes based on season
105
climatic variations occur due to
uneven heating of earths surface during orbit (angle of inclination)
106
PET
potential evapotranspirational
107
PET is
the amount of water that COULD be evaporated and transpired IF there was sufficient water available
108
PET graph
tree species richness around globe vs. PET (mm/yr)
increases up and to right
cold+dry = very few species
109
why is there a large spread on the high PET end of PET graph
b/c PET represents amount of water that COULD be evaporated.. doesn't mean that much water is present..
110
vertebrates vs. PET
increase up and to the right like trees, fn of tree diversity and moisture and T
111
explanations for global species richness
```
PP
competition theory
predation theory
wind/animal pollinator theory
climate variability theory
spatial heterogeneity theory
environmental age theory
geological time and cladogenesis theory
```
112
competition theory results
temperate- r-select species- broad niches, low diversity
| tropic- k-seleced species- narrow niches, higher diversity
113
predation theory
few predators/parasites= high herbivore density = low species richness
more predators = low herbivore density = high richness
114
predation theory results
temperate - few predators = lots of herbivores
| tropics- many predators/parasites/specialists = low herbivore= more niche space
115
pollinator theory
more wind = less pollinators = low diversity
116
pollinator theory results
temperate = more wind = low diversity, flowers work harder for species of insects
tropics- more insects, flowers pollinated by specialists (one species- climate survivable by insects all yr)
117
climate variability theory
temperature similarity = more specialization
| larger T range = lower # species
118
climate variability theory tropics
less variation = more opportunity for year round specialization
119
spatial heterogeneity theory
on a completely smooth sphere there is low niche opportunity, variations in surface create opportunity- mandelbrot series
120
insects vs. architectural rating (Opuntia)
leaves perpendicular = same area, photsynthesis, more insects (more niche space)
121
spatial heterogeneity theory results
temperate: few plants- few herbivores- few predators
tropic: many plants- many herbivore- many predators
122
bird species diversity
increase with plant species diversity, but more related to foliage height diversity (more niches)
123
example of tropics high specificity
up to 10 different mite niches on parrot/macaw feather
124
environmental age theory
assembly rules: deglaciation- plant regrow- insects regrow
recolonize quickest- wind dispersal seed plants
high insect abundance = plants been around a long time
125
low #'s of insects after long time
represent niche spaces of plants that have recently recolonized
126
geological time and cladogenesis theory
geographical isolation + natural selection + geological time = cladogenesis
127
example of geological time and cladogenesis theory
australia
128
length of time for origin of a new species
~1million years
| potentially as short as 10,000 years
129
continental explanations for difference in species richness
PP, geological time
130
regional explanations for differences in species richness
PP, environmental age, spatial heterogeneity
131
Local community explanations for difference in species richness
competition, predation, spatial heterogeneity
132
number of species vs. area
mainland vs. island
island- greater slope (0.2-0.4)
(mainland ~0.1)
larger areas- island populations approach mainland
small areas- island populations << mainland
133
IBT
island biogeography
134
why lower # species on islands
dispersal barriers/distance from source
MVA/patch size
genetic diversity/homozygosity/extinction
135
lower number of species per island size
distance from sourceland
136
persistence of populations over 50 years based on original population size
>=100 -- ~100%
51-100 -- ~60%
<=50 -- 0%
137
persistence of populations 15 or less
50% by 30 years
| 20% by 40 years
138
ecological disharmony
non-representative proportions of some species
Skewed balance of taxa relative to mainland
Superabundance of some taxa
Absence of other taxa
139
why ecological disharmony
different resource use
less trophic levels- unbalanced
species have different dispersals
predators- higher extinction rate
140
ex. ecological disharmony
amphibian niche space overtaken by other organisms (ex. birds) b/c they can't swim throughs salt water
141
plant colonization graph
plant species vs. yr
wind dispersal seeds steeper sloped colonization rate
water dispersal
142
successive extinctions/colonizations
decrease in number species
| leads to species turnover
143
MacArthur and Wilsons equilibrium model
```
rate vs. # species present
immigration- decreasing
extinction- increasing
where lines cross- equilibrium
t(0) = large event (volcano)
```
144
why immigration curve starts so high in MacArthur/Wilson model
new area = large niche space = colonization by many species
145
when immigration curve = 0 in MacArthur/Wilson model
immigration is still occurring but colonization is not successful
146
high extinctions
small population size
resource depletion
small island
inbreeding
147
small island =
smaller population = higher extinction
148
near island =
high colonization rate
149
far, small island
equilibrium shifts left (lower species #)
150
at equilibrium (MacArthur/Wilson model)
actual species composition is in continuous state of change (continual extinctions/colonizations)
151
MacArthur/Wilson model can predict
numbers of species but not species composition
152
major issue with the loss of brazil rainforest
can't be recolonized-- no more source area, Brazil WAS the source area
153
MacArthur-Wilson experimental equilibrium theory test (1978)
defaunated mangrove islands at different distances to sourceland, took species counts over time
154
experimental equilibrium theory test results
species built up quickest in closest island
not same species as originally present (at first)
later- same species assemblage as original
155
conclusions from experimental equilibrium theory test
can't predict species assemblage
| CAN predict species assemblage GIVEN enough time
156
why- give enough time- do you wind up with the same species assemblage
tolerance- only certain species can live together under certain conditions- think niche dimensions
157
modifications to equilibrium theory
target effect
rescue effect
tripartite theory
158
target effect
larger islands have higher immigration rate than expected
159
rescue effect
close islands have higher immigration rate-- reduces chances of extinction
160
Tripartite theory
3D graph of immigration vs. extinction vs. speciation
area/extinction on same axis
isolation/immigration on same axis
speciation is a function of multiple factors
161
stability of island community structure
```
large island
high resistance to change
high resilience (ability to return to predisturbed state)
```
162
stability theories
stability vs. # species
diversity-stability hypothesis
rivet hypothesis
redundancy hypothesis
163
diversity-stability hypothesis
Charles Elton
function is linear increasing
loss of one species affects stability
164
rivet hypothesis
Paule, Anne Erhlich
fn nearly logarithmic, increasing
one-few species losses don't effect stability (plane rivet analogy)
165
redundancy hypothesis
```
Passenger hypothesis
Brian Walker
reaches asymptote early
species = passengers
species are not equal in stability importance
many species can be lost w/o effecting
```
166
stability crash in redundancy theory
only if loss of keystone/dominant species (like throwing the pilot off the plane)
167
world population 2013
7.1 billion
168
top populated countries
china 1.3 billion
india 1.1 bill
US 300 mill
169
most densely populated countries
bangladesh 1,002ppl/km^2
Japan 337ppl/km^2
india 328 ppl/km^2
170
global population growth rate
~1.1% -- 75million ppl/yr
| 130M births, 55M deaths
171
largest annual growth rate is in
africa
172
lowest annual growth rate is in
Russia, Greenland, Canada
173
human population growth
exponential
| ~4 generations ago-- lots of births-- high Ro
174
how do we decide if the world is overpopulated
starvation
disease
conflict
175
starvation
>30% undernourished
increased world hunger
increased malnourished areas
176
most undernourished countries
```
congo
burundi
haiti
sierra leone
ethiopia
angola
zambia
zimbabwe
```
177
Disease- child mortality rates
down from 11.9 mil (1990) to 6.9mil (2011)
178
conflict
new war every 2yrs
| ~378,000 deaths/yr
179
common causes of war
resource constraints and conflict
| ethnocentrism
180
Impact (I)
= PAT
P - population size
A - per-capita consumption
T - environmental damage in order to supply each unit of consumption
181
Highest GNP
NA, Australia, western Europe
182
habitats lost
forests, grasslands, estuaries, coral reefs
183
Deforestation
clear cutting
variable retention
selective cutting
184
clear cutting
remove all trees in patches
12ha - 2000ha
80 yr rotation
most invasive/widespread/profit margin/common
185
variable retention
leave representative old growth in each cut block
| 10-30% retention
186
WFP
world food programme
187
selective cutting
```
removal of single trees by helicopter
least invasive
makes small-gaps in canopy- seedlings develop
similar to natural disturbance
cost-prohibitive
```
188
problems with variable retention
small patches are subject to windfall- counter productive
189
madagascar
almost completely deforested
lateritic soil runs off into ocean
only place lemurs live
190
lateritic soil
soils leached of Si after deforestation
| concentrated in Fe, Ni, Al, Mn
191
causes of deforestation in Brazilian Amazon
Cattle 65-70%
Agriculture 30-35%
Logging 2-3%
192
Brazil cattle herding
largest cattle herd in world
export to 170 countries
3X in past year
193
how do they clear cut in Brazil
slash and burn- have to burn to release nutrients
194
Had highest diversity of every taxonomic group on planet
Ecuador (no other source land)
195
countries with highest deforestation rates
Brazil- 3.5mil Ha/yr
| Indonesia- 1.5 mil Ha/yr
196
largest changes in deforestation rates from 1990-2005
Peru- 200%
Viet Nam,Nigeria- 120%
Madagascar- 40% LESS
French Guiana, Brunei- ~10% LESS
197
Coastal temperate rainforest characteristics
```
ancient trees (1000y old, 4m)
4 strata, structurally complex
species restricted to old growth
species rich
greatest biomass/ha of all ecosystems
```
198
coastal temperate rainforests are most productive where
on salmon rivers-- nutrient transfer
199
coastal temperate rainforest seral stage recovery after clear cutting
1000yr
200
how much of worlds temperate rainforests have been cut
55%
201
how much of Washington's, Organs, Californias ancient rainforests are gone
95%
202
BC has how much of worlds remaining coastal temperate rainforests?
1/4
203
Gribbell island story
30% white bears-- clear cut watershed (1980s)-- loss of salmon (4000--300kg/yr)-- 80% reduction in major protein source for bear
204
Haida Gwaii deforestation
156,000 ha logged
| 70% of old growth gone
205
Prairie/Grassland human use
large increase in crop land and pasture land
206
Coral Reef characeristics
richest marine ecosystem
| highest species diversity of vert. on planet
207
problems with coral reefs (the numbers)
75% globally degraded and in decline (over 30-40yrs)
80% reduction in Caribbean coral diversity
50% reduction in corals of Great Barrier Reef
208
why theres problems with coral reefs
warming of oceans, cyclones, ocean acidification, coliform bacteria, artisanal fishing, commercial fishing, aquaria trade
209
atmospheric habitat modification
CO2, water vapour, black carbon, CH4, nitrous oxide, NF3, CFCs, SO2, radioactivity
210
atmospheric molecules that increase global warming
CO2, H2O, black C, CH4, NO, NF3, CFCs
211
atmospheric molecule that reduced global warming
SO2-- increases smog though
212
habitat loss- estuaries
very uncommon, very important
major cities
no comparable habitats for displaced species
213
sunlight comes in as
shortwave radiation (leaves as long wave)
214
Antarctic ice core oxygen isotopes
16O evaporates preferentially, snow is enriched in 18O
| correlation between 18O/16O and T
215
[CO2] sep 2014
395ppm
216
when did CO2 go above 400pm
april 2013
| Mauna Loa, Hawaii
217
fossil fuels from
300mya (Paleozoic)
218
Carbon isotopes
12C:13C -- 99%:1%
14C unstable
living plants absorb all 3
14C 'dissapears'
219
14C
1/2 life - 5730 yrs
decays to 14N
coal/oil do not contain 14C
220
Suess effect
burning fossil fuels releases CO2 w/o 14C-- can measure
221
funders behind climate change denial effort
Koch brothers (Koch industries- petroleum, chemicals, oil)
dark money
ExxonMobil
222
contributions to global warming
H2O 36-72%
CO2 9-26%
CH4 4-9%
O3 3-7%
223
since 1890 the Arctic T has risen
1.9ºC - almost an entire degree from BC
224
BC
formed through incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuel, and biomass, emitted in anthropogenic/naturally occurring soot
absorbs heat, reduces albedo
225
dominant absorber of visible solar radiation in the atmosphere
BC
226
BC most concentrated in
tropics- highest solar irradiance
227
highest methane concentration
arctic
228
N2O from
cultivated soils
| transportation
229
NF3
industrial gas- semiconductor manufacturing
| GWP relative to CO2- 17200
230
GWP
global warming potential
| 11% atmospheric increase /yr
231
ozone formation
stratosphere- 20km
UVC + O2 = O + O
O2 + O = O3
232
UV wavelengths
UVC <290nm - ionizing radiation
UVB 290-320nm
UVA 320-400nm
233
atmospheric ozone absorption
99% of UVC
| 50% of UVB
234
CFC
chlorofluorocarbon - freon
solvent, refrigerant, aerosol
rises high in atmos
235
problem with CFC
UV knocks off one Cl
Cl steals O from O3
Free O collides with ClO and steals O.. Cl free to break apart another O3
236
ozone hole forms
every Sep. on Antarctic stratospheric clouds
237
ozone hole max
2007 - 27million km^2
238
ramification of antarctic ozone hole
southern semi westerly wind intensification-- large-scale changes in ventilation of southern oceans
'sun burn' in whales
239
when does ozone depletion occur
local winter-spring
240
Environment Canada cut ozone science
in the year that saw the first ozone hole in the northern hemisphere
241
CO2 summary
397ppm
50% global warming
fossil fuels, deforestation
242
CH4 summary
1.72ppmb (B)
19% global warming
rice paddies, landfills, burning, coal mining, gas exploitation, animals, sewage
243
N2O summary
310ppb
4% global warming
cultivation, fossil fuel
244
CFC summary
.28-.48ppb
15% global warming
aerosols, foam, insulator
245
overall greenhouse gases
75% anthropogenic
| 25% natural
246
ecologic consequences of global warming
loss of ice cover
extremes in weather system
coral reef bleaching
247
responding most rapidly to global warming
Arctic- amplification of global warming
248
global biodiversity low
during 'greenhouse' phases
249
highest SO2 emissions
Europe - ~1980
| Asia - now
250
SO2
volcanoes, fossil fuels burning
| acid rain
251
acid rain
pH 3.2 (100X more acidic than normal rain (5.8))
fish eggs don't survive
forest/crop damage
252
acid rain equation
SO2/NOx + H2O -- H2SO4/HNO3
25% HNO3
75% H2SO4
253
WHO set healthy level of Air Quality Index
25µg
254
Beijing air quality index
300 - bad
500 - hazardous
spring 2012 - 700!
255
Radioactivity
nuclear power
Ur, Pu
450 plants in world
high efficiency, require little fuel, few greenhouse gases, can have high environment/human damage
256
countries with most nuclear reactors
US - 100
France - 60
Japan - 50
257
background radioactivity
0.034 MilliRoentgen /hr
| fukushima leak - workers - 2.5mR/hr
258
Chernobyl
Russia, April 25, 1986
as of 2004- >2.3million ppl hospitalized
nearly 1mill around the world died
259
birth defects in Belarus since Chernobyl
up to 83%
| cleft palate, downs, deformities
260
Ukraine children
6000 heart deffects/yr
200% increase in birth defects
>1million children live in contaminated zones
261
Death valley
70km2 nobody will every be able to live there again
262
ocean acidification affects
```
primary productivity
dominant species
lowers biomass
ability to form shells
Fe availability
```
263
what is ocean acidification
ocean is saturated with CaCO3
increasing atoms. CO2 reduces ocean pH and [HCO3]
happening within decades
264
Exxon Valdez
March 24, 1989, Alaska
250,000 barrels of oil
10million gallons
265
deaths from exxon valdez
```
250,000 seabirds
2800 sea otters
300 harbour seal
250 bald eagles
22 whales
```
266
sediment runoff
greatly affects corrals by blocking sunlight
267
marine mammals
Biomagnification
highly contaminated with pollutants
PCB, PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
cancers, sterility
268
POP
persistent organic pollutant
269
bears that consume salmon
accumulate DDT, chlordanes, BDE-47
270
probability of occurrence of solvents in groundwater
associated with dissolved oxygen content of groundwater, urban land use, population density, hydraulic properties of aquifer
271
problems with groundwater contamination
health effects:
Mutagen
Carginogen
Teratogen
272
mutagen
causes mutation to DNA
273
carcinogen
causes cancer
274
teratogen
causes birth defects
275
arsenic causes
preservative in wood -90%
| fossil fuel combustion, industrial, pesticides, natural deposits
276
problems with arsenic
carcinogen, teratogen >300µg/L
| standard level - 10µg/L
277
DDT biomagnification in birds
10mill X increase in birds compared to in water
| kidney failure-- affects shell gland- causes birds to not be able to lay eggs with shells
278
Hungary disaster
october 2010
burst of retaining wall of reservoirs-- million m^3 of toxic waste released
killed all aquatic life
279
Diclofenac
anti-inflammatory given to indian cattle-- vultures eat dead cattle-- dehydrated/kidney failure-- vultures die-- major increase in rabid dogs
280
neonicotinoids
```
most widely used insecticide
highly soluble
persist for long periods
leach into ground/water
delayed toxic to insects-- declines in bird populations
```
281
whaling
1880-1970 >90% depletion of whales
| blue, fin, sei, bowhead, right, sperm, gray, humpback
282
BC whaling
```
1908-1967
5610 humbacks taken
6060 sperm
3779 sei
1378 blue
7520 fin
```
283
IWC
international whaling commission
284
what countries are NOT members of IWC?
Canada, Norway, Iceland
| japan whales 'for science'
285
bluefin tuna
can get $700,000
| population is collapsing
286
based on trophic levels and biomass of PP... fish (4th trophic level) biomass
expected - 605x10^9kg/y
| Acutal - 240x10^9kg/yr
287
how much of prey should each predator species take
3%
| 3% of actual fish biomass is 7.2x10^9 kg/yr
288
how much fish biomass we are actually taking
~80x10^9 kg/yr
289
commercial fishing %exploitation rate of prey
40! should be 3..
290
fishing down marine food webs
we started by capturing large prey-- population collapse-- over time, left with small species
291
East coast fish biomass
1900 >11tonnes/km^2
2000 <3tonnes /km^2
5-10% of what there was 100 yrs ago
292
problem with legal trade
how can we set allowable catches without knowing population sizes
293
grizzly bear extent
historical- western half of NA
| current- N and W Canada
294
species importet in Britain over 7 months of 1976 that shouldn't be legally traded
leopard 661
jaguar 279
polar bear 101
295
legal trade of primates
35,000
| 2002-- 40,000
296
legal trade of parrots
>450,000
| 2012-- 320,000
297
coral reef fish are caught
with cyanide bombs
| 350 million in 4 years
298
dolphins are hunted
to be used as shark bait (meat stays on hook well)
299
why aren't tropical nature preserves very good
poachers still go in
'empty forests'- most-all species >2kg pretty much extirpated
loss of symbionts- can't conserve biodiversity
300
Japan 2004 commercial hunt
```
444 striped dolphins
197 bottlenose dolphins
102 pantropical spotted dolphins
293 rissos dolphins
117 pilot whales
12 false killer whales
```
301
BC black bear hunt
10,000 /yr (legally)
| 6000 illegally
302
canada seal hunt
100-400,000 /yr
| ~30million revenue
303
major exporters of wildlife trade
argentina, australia, bolivia, brazil, canada, china, columbia, congo, honduras, india, indonesia, nepal, philippines, sout korea, taiwan, thailand, US
304
major importers of wildlife trade
UK, US, united arab emirates, european union, canada, china, honking, japan, korea, singapore, taiwan, yemen
305
NA songbird decline
began to manifest in 1980s
more in long distance migrators
more prevelant NE NA
306
bird mortalities
feral cats >>1billion/yr
windows 1billion/yr
high tension wires 200mill/yr
pesticides 100mill/yr
307
large sea bird kill
attracted to lights on boats at night
| 5-10 die/night/boat
308
introduction of exotic species
causes major habitat alteration and decline of native species
309
non-native species example
pigs, goats for human consumption-- rats at same time-- major decline of native birds-- mongoose introduced to control rats-- major predation of native species
310
why do pigs and goats outcompete other species
because they eat everything, take over
311
problem with mongoose introduction
rats love native birds.. so do mongoose.. not a way to control rats
312
exotic species have greater reproductive output
due to their alteration of the habitat
313
problem with raising cattle
very uniform genetically- one pathogen easily passed-- farmed cattle are vaccinated-- pass virus to native species
314
charles elton
the ecology of invasions by animals and plants
315
countries with high % alien flora
New Zealand 46.7%
South Georgia 67.5%
Campbell Island 38.8%
Canada 21.8%
316
feral
an animal living in the wild but descended from domesticated individuals
317
domestic cat impact
1.4-3.7 billion mammals/yr
| greatest source of anthropogenic mortality for US birds and mammals
318
domestic cats in australia
every day in Australia 75million animals fall prey to ~15million feral cats
319
Rinderpest
ungulate disease (morbiliviruses- measles, distemper..)
contaminated food
1990s 90% mortality in Kenya
saved domestics w/ vaccinations
320
threats to endangered wildlife from domestic animals
canine distemper, rabies, mange, feline infectious peritonitis
321
>95% bat mortality
white-nose syndrome
| fungal growth
322
massive amphibian mortality around the globe
Chitrid amphibian disease
323
hawaiian bird mortality
avian malaria
| every species of bird below 1500m? extinct-- higher than that no mosquitos-- could persist
324
average species persistance
1million years
325
how many of the species that have lived over that last 550 million years are extinct
99%
326
characteristic of natural extinction of a species
replaced by a different species (similar niche)- no overall trophic change in community
327
determines whether species are prone to extinction
```
rarity
dispersal ability
degree of specialization
population variability
trophic status
reproductive ability
```
328
rarity
rare species- small disturbance causes extinction
| common- small disturbance has minor effect (less prone to extinction)
329
dispersal ability
poor dispersal-- habitat destroyed- not able to reach new fragment
good dispersal-- habitat destroyed- can reach new fragment
330
degree of specialization
high = more prone to extinction
| low specialization = less prone to extinction
331
example of high specialization
panda bear, spotted owl
332
example of low specialization
capuchin monkey, great horned owl
333
population variability
high variability- sudden pop decline can lead to extinction
| low variability- pop size relatively constant, extinction unlikely
334
trophic status
high trophic status- top carnivores are few, prone to extinction
low trophic status- abundant, less prone to extinction
335
numbers in trophic levels
plants- thousands
herbivores- hundrands
carnivores- tens
336
reproductive ability
low reproductive ability- more prone to extinction ex. blue whale
337
countries with most endangered mammals
Madagascar (53), Indonesia (49), Brazil (40)
338
countries with most endangered birds
indonesia (135), brazil (123), china (83)
339
countries with most endangered fish
USA (164), mexico (98), indonesia (29)
340
highest % threat to all species
```
habitat loss (85-90%)
exotic species (~50%)
```
341
large marsupial extinction in Australia ~10,000ya
when humans colonized
342
north american mammal extinction
when humans spread to NA
343
examples of extinct mammals since 1600
```
stellers seacow
thylacine
falkland isl wolf
sloth lemur
janaese sealion
dwarf hippo
```
344
bird extinctions since 1600
great auk, dodo, passenger, pigeon, eskimo curlew, carolina parakeet, hawaiian honeycreeper (51 species extinct, 40 endangered)
345
Philippine extinctions
10 endemic bird species, 9 extinct in last 50yrs (deforestation)
346
hawaiian plants
1126 species, 90 extinct
347
extinction based on island size in 100 years
25km^2 -- 10%
| 1km^2 -- 50%
348
delayed biodiversity loss
extinction debt/extinction half life
349
origination should
follow extinction
350
natural extinction occurs
because one species is outcompeted by a new one
| NOT what is happening now- extinction >> origination
351
normal extinction rate
few species/ year
now: 3000/year
evolving- <1/yr
352
History of Conservation 1600-1900
european hunting preserves for monarchies
some of only natural forest in europe
ex. black forest, germany
353
Henry David Thoreau
1840-1865 American naturalist/philosopher
progressive thinking for his time and ours, recluse
"The Maine Woods" - every creature is better alive than dead
354
Alfred Wallace
1863, British Naturalist/collector
| codiscoverer of natural selection, recluse, no destruction around-prophetic
355
Established Parks
```
Yosemite Valley, 1864 (Cali, Abraham Lincoln)
Yellowstone, 1872
Concept of biosphere, 1875
Banff, 1885
Jasper, 1907
Mount McKinley, 1917
Serengeti Park, 1951
```
356
World conservation Union
IUCN, 1948
| International Union for the Protection of Nature, 181 countries
357
Aldo Leopold
Sand County Almanac, Sketches Here and There, 1948
| One of the penalties of an ecological education is that one lives alone in a world of wounds
358
Rachel Carson
1962, Silent Spring
359
IBP
International Biological Program, 1964-1974
360
The Population Bomb
Paul Ehrlich, 1968
| human pop growing exponentially, growing/finding resources increasing linearly.. will lead to a crash
361
UNFPA
1969 United Nations Population Fund
| first effort to give women control over reproduction
362
First Earth Day
1970
363
first Landsat satellite
1972, global coverage of land use and PP
364
CITES
1975, convention on international trade in endangered species
175 countries, 5000 animal species, 28000 plants, 3 classifications
365
CITES classification
Appendix 1: threatened with extinction. Permits required
| Appendix 2: not threatened but vulnerable. no permits required
366
examples of species in appendix 1
tiger, leopard, jaguar, cheetah, chimp, gorilla, red panda, asiatic elephant
367
example of species in appendix 2
great white shark, african grey parrot, green iguana, bilge mahogany
368
The Diversity of Life
E.O. Wilson, 1992
369
Ecological footprint
Rees, UBC, 1992
370
Human welfare vs. ecological footprint
increased standard of living (human development index) = increased ecological footprint
371
earths biocapacity
2.1 ha/person
many countries well above that
canada ~7, US ~9
Reimchen 8.8
372
problem with ecological footprint model
does not consider # offspring - largest cause of overuse of world supplies
373
projected population in 2100
at 2011 growth rate 18.5 bill
2 child families 8.7 bill
1 child families 1.4bil
374
Kyoto Protocol
1997
ratified by 189 countries in 2009
intl treaty, binding obligations on industrialized countries to reduce emissions
375
Protected area defined by IUCN
an area of land or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources and managed through legal or other effective means
376
6 IUCN categories
```
I Strict nature reserve/wildnerness area
II National and Provincial Parks
III National Monument
IV Habitat/species management area
V Protected landscape/seascape
VI Managed resource protected area
```
377
IUCN category I
1a. strict nature reserve: managed mainly for science (ecological reserve)
1b. wilderness area: managed mainly for wilderness protection
378
IUCN category II
national/provincial parks: managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation (very local, ex.Taj Mahal)
379
IUCN category III
national monument: managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features (world heritage sites)
380
IUCN category IV
Habitat/species management area: managed mainly for conservation through management intervention (introduced species removal)
381
IUCN category V
Protected landscape/seascape: managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation (Orca Pass International Stewardship Area)
382
IUCN category VI
Managed resource protected area: managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystem (Crown land)
383
WDPA
world database on protected areas, conservation decision making
384
total area protected
cumulative total area protected ~18mill km
cumulative terrestrial- 14mill
marine 4mill
385
global protection by IUCN category
```
Ia. 5.5%
Ib. 5.4%
II. 23.5%
III. 1.5%
IV. 16.1%
V. 5.6%
VI. 23.3%
no category 19%
```
386
global trends in protected lands
N=169, MOST <10%
387
countries with greatest % protected area
Seychelles 94% (404km^2) Slovakia 72% (14,000km^2)
| Greenland 45% (2.2mil km^2)
388
protected areas in BC
>1000
389
Major IUCN concerns
```
Paper Parks
Design Shortcomings
Internal threats
External threats
Trans international boundary effects
financing protected areas
```
390
Paper Parks
park names exist on maps but with no implementation
391
Design Shortcomings
| a.
a. position of parks are chosen based on min political and industrial opposition and are ineffective to preserve biodiversity
many of world parks in deserts, ice caps, tundra mts (lowest diversity)
392
Design Shortcomings
| b.
b. size of parks are too small to preserve biodiversity due to fragmentation effect (small pop., increased extinction rate)
MVP, MVA
393
MVP
maintain 90% genetic variability after 200yrs
394
MVA
maintain genetic variability after 200 yrs
395
fraction of initial genetic variation left after 500 generations
N=1000, 0.9
N=300, 0.5
N=100, 0.1
N=20, 0 (after 200 generations)
396
inbreeding in animals can increase
susceptibility to pathogens
397
10% probability of extinction in 100 years
safe
398
vulnerable
20% probability of extinction in 20 years
399
endangered
50% probability of extinction in 10 years
400
critically endangered
>50% probability of extinction in 10 years
401
most common park size
<10km^2
402
MVA for pop 2500
small herb. 10km^2
large herb. few 1000km^2
large carn. >100,000km^2
403
Khutzeymateen Grizz sanctuary
450km^2
| can't persist in <50,000 km^2
404
combined Jasper, Banff, Glacier, Yoho, Waterton
20,000 km^2
405
Take away message from MVP population size vs. Persistence, years
Major IUCN concerns- design shortcomings- **Size of parks are too small to preserve biodiversity due to fragmentation effect**
406
Major IUCN concerns, Internal threats to protected areas
infringement, poaching, fires, disease, groundwater reduction, invasive species, highways
407
Yellowstone poaching
5000 violations/yr documented
| ~1:20 detection rate
408
why rhinos are targeted
mythical chinese medicine- poached in south africa for chinese market (~1-200 left)
409
bent line in MVP vs. persistence graph
>90% survival, non-linear equation- more factors/constraints involved
410
Park size needed is a function of
body size
411
Banff correcting highway deaths
adding fences, underpasses, overpasses
| from 81-2001 4051 large mammals were killed on highways
412
Major IUCN concerns, External threats
outside the influence of management or control
| headwater effects, dams, acid rain, ozone hole, climate change, biocides, pathogens
413
example of external threats (IUCN concerns)
brucellosis- domestic cattle vaccinated, bison not
414
IUCN trans international boundary effects
migration corridors
| trans international boundary- migratory paths disrupted by protective area boundaries
415
example of IUCN trans international boundary effects
Mexico-US fence blocks antelope migration- they have to climb under the fence :(
416
Y2Y
yellowstone to yukon
| idea to join all parks to allow dispersal/migration
417
IUCN financing
currently 7billion/yr
| required 40billion/yr
418
Migratory Bird Treaty Act
1918, first statute to protect seabirds, recognized their importance in the nutrient cycle
419
new regulation for Antarctica birds
bird colonies should be overflown below 2000ft- spooks them--- crush their eggs (looks like a large predator)
420
Downside to initiation of IWC
for decades hundreds of thousands of whales were killed (b/c they wouldn't be able to soon)
421
no-fishing zones
1970-1980, intl implementation of marine areas protected from commercial extraction of fish
422
no-take zones
MPA- marine protected area
| 'parks' in ocean
423
benefits of no-take zone
increased abundance of fish
increased presence of larger fish with exponential increase in reproductive output
increased species diversity
recovery of competitors, biodiversity, ecosystem processes
424
no-take zone opposition
major by commercial/rec fisheries, government
| say that MPAs not necessary- no strong evidence that reduction in fish extraction would benefit other wildlife
425
Canadian Fisheries Act
No one shall hunt or kill fish or marine animals of any kind, other than porpoises, whales, walruses, sea lions, and hair by means of rockets, explosive materials, explosive projectile..
OTHER THAN?
426
redefine MPA
IUCN 1988, any area of the intertidal or subtitle terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment
427
recognized importance of no-fish zones
because fish populations rebounded during WWI
428
why SUCH a large population increase (exponential) if no fishing
b/c fish can reproduce later-- higher amounts
429
proportion of global ocean area protected
Category I: 0.05%
Category II: 0.08%
2010: total 1.17%
430
PIPA
Phoenix Islands Protected Area- 400 thous. km^2, one of the largest protected areas, MPA zone (can still fish), SW or Hawaii
431
Gwaii Haanas
queen charlotte islands of BC
| 93% fishing as normal
432
number MPAs in 2010
6800- very fragmented, marine animals migrate! not very protective
433
where are there not no-take zones
in the highest productivity areas of the ocean- would conflict with commercial fishing
434
meta analysis of MVP
4169 individuals
435
songbird diversity
lower population = lower genetic variability = more similar songs
songs can predict fragmentation
436
Approaches to Conservation Ecology
```
Studies of fragmented areas
Critical habitat approach
Identifying biodiversity hotspots
identifying endemic species
park design
```
437
nesting trees
snags- owls need old, dead trees to reproduce
| dead tree protected by law- left up when clear cutting
438
Critical habitat approach
forest age structure
nesting trees
nutrient pulses
439
biodiversity hot spots
localized areas of high species diversity
localized areas of high density of individuals within a species
face exceptional threats of destruction
440
examples of biodiversity hot spots
Ascension island
snake river
Triangle island
Monarch butterfly migration
441
how much of hotspots have protection
<10%
| median 8.4%
442
Triangle island
Northern tip of Van Isl
| huge [seabirds]- surrounding sea very rich (guano)- no predators to eat bird eggs
443
Ascension island
essential for sea turtle reproduction
444
snake river
very high # predatory birds nesting
445
Earths plant species (diversity hot spots)
1/5 of plant species confined to 0.5% of Earths land surface
| in habitats threatened with imminent destruction
446
Yasuni national park
Ecuador, biological hot spot- highest bird/orca/insect diversity.. have oil
447
endemic species
unique to an area
| all countries, all ecosystems
448
endemic species most common
on islands furthest from continents
| Haida Gwaii, Hawaii, Galapagos, Madagascar
449
our endemic species
VI marmot
450
map of evolutionary uniqueness
degree of difference- genetic divergence, vertebrates, highest- Australia, Madagascar
medium- South America, South Africa
'low'- North America, Europe, Asia
451
degree of difference is used to
identify endemic species
452
corals found to be how old
4,265years
| based on radiocarbon dating
453
Approaches to conservation ecology- park design
design best possible park, 10,000km^2?
| connect exsiting parks, minimize edge effect, examine grids of species, roads, cities, max benefit, min cost, ownership
454
SLOSS
park design
| single large or several small?
455
factors involved in park design
SLOSS, shape, position, corridor
456
benefits of SL or SS (park design)
SS- capture more of the high quality habitat/diversity
| SL- MVA
457
shape (park design)
circular- less edge effect
| longer- may be good for corridor, riparian, migration route
458
Position (park design)
```
close together (triangle)- greater opportunity for dispersal, bad- pathogen spread
line of areas- corridor, migration
```
459
most parks SLOSS?
multiple small areas- lead to lower genetic diversity- not MVA
460
distribution of living things depends on
niche differences
| spatial/temporal constraint
461
Restoration ecology
reconstruction of degraded habitats to pre disturbance state
reintroduction of recently extinct populations
removal of exotic species
Augmentation of ecosystem processes
Sustainable development
462
ER
ecosystem restoration- process of assisting with the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed
463
Yellowstone reintroduction
wolves extinct from hunting, agriculture, loss of habitat- loss of riparian zone due to large # elk
464
reintroduction of wolves led to
decrease elk, increase riparian, berries, grizzlies, coyotes, birds, small mammals, shrubbery
465
cascading effects
trophic downgrading, top-down forcing
| system changes at herbivore e and plant trophic levels due to loss of large carnivores
466
top-down forcing even affects
disease, wildfire, carbon sequestration, invasive species, biogeochemical cycles
467
Galapagos rail
bird, vulnerable to invasive mammals
| predation by pigs, habitat degradation by goats
468
removal of pigs/goats on rail
increased pop density by over an order of magnitude in ~20yrs
469
South Georgia rats
rats taken over- cull them with poison pellets- will kill birds, reindeer
470
Reindeer are found
naturally only in Northern hemisphere
471
South Georgia reindeer
introduced in 20th century, over 3000, no natural predators, damage natural habitat, endangering native sea birds-- cull
472
Red/Arctic foxes
native to Alaska, introduced to islands, loss of breeding/nesting for seabirds, shorebirds, waterfowl- cull -- island restoration saved endangered Aleutian cackling Canada goose
473
Scotch broom
introduced 1850, rapid spread, bank stabilizer-deep roots, rapid growth, strong competitor with natives- light, moisture, nutrients
no natural predator
474
HBB
himalayan blackberry- invades riparian areas, forests, oak woodlands, meadows, roadside, clear cuts, open areas..
out competes natives, limit movement of animals
475
augmentation of ecosystem processes
ID sources of biodiversity loss to allow supplement of limited resources and critical species interactions that facilitate recovery
476
loss of songbirds, communication towers
avian fatalities can be reduced by 50-70% by light changes (communication towers)
477
long os songbirds, windows
reduce collision: curtains, blinds, remove window plants, screens, non-reflective, one-way coating, angled down
doesn't work: hawk decals, a few decals, owl figurine
478
mesopredator
middle trophic level predators such as raccoons, skunks, snakes, coyote
479
mesopredator cascade effect
affect distribution and abundance of smaller carnivores and prey
ex. coyote--cat--bird
480
belowground biodiversity
contribute to aboveground biodiversity, structure/function of ecosystem, ecologic/evolutionary response of ecosystem to environment change
481
sustainable development
longterm persistence of human society and environmental processes through intelligent ecological management- Y2Y, ecobridges
482
Pleistocene rewilding
reintroducing lost North American megafauna to restore natural ecosystems
483
massive rafaunation
replacing local rather than global extinctions- benefit conservation without risk of unpredictable interactions
484
pleistocene rewinding has been called
frankenstein ecosystem
485
sustainable development - zoos
>1000 public zoos, conservation potential,
486
WAZA
world association of zoos and aquariums
member of IUCN, CITES
recognize evidence-based conservation, integrated species conservation, horizon scans, promotes use of red list
487
sustainable development, smithsonian, captive breeding
'insurance policy', conserving species that may not survive in the wild
conservation education, research, zoos
488
species saved by captive breeding
guam rails, black footed ferrets, california condors, przewalskis horses, horned oryx, partula snails, spixs macaws
489
captive breeding goals
```
maintain healthy age structure
ensure reproduction successful
protect against disease
avoid inbreeding
maybe reintroduce back to wild
```
490
captive breeding of vertebrates
recovery in 17 of 68 species whose threat levels were reduced
491
VI marmot
1/5 endemic species to canada
critically endangered, high elevation alpine meadows
2003- only 30 left
492
carbon credits
credit of currency for reducing greenhouse gas output
| 1 credit for 1 ton reduction CO2
493
kyoto signed by
170 countries
| not those with largest greenhouse gas output (US, China, India, Brazil, Canada withdrew)
494
can fund reduction in greenhouse emissions by
clean energy projects- wind farms
495
world electricity
```
Coal 45%
natural gas 20%
nuclear 20%
hydro 8%
other 5%
```
496
'other' world electricity
wind 2.9% (of total)
biomass 1.5%
geothermal 0.4%
solar 0.04%
497
hydroelectricity
geographically limited, high ecological impact, low cost
498
nuclear power
unlimited potential
fission/fusion
high risk- weapons, ecological, health
499
photovoltaics
high potential, low risk, high cost
500
PV growth
govt buyback of solar power at 3X retail price over 20yr contract
501
OPA
ontario power authority- standard offer program, buys solar power at 0.42$ per kWh and sells back for current rate (0.055/kWh)
0.11$ for other power (wind, biomass, hydro)
502
possible fixes for global warming
```
carbon credits
hydroelectric
nuclear power
photovoltaics
solar-hydrogen econonmy
wind
new technofixes
```
503
how does photovoltaic work
dissociates water to H2 + O2
stores the potential until night
night- H,O recombined using fuel cell, PV cell rests
fuel cells byproduct (H2O) recycled to be split again during the day
504
spain windpoer
2009- 50% of country powered by wind
| 2013- produced more electricity than any other source
505
windpower problems
bats- fly into b/c of low pressure
birds- fly into
can be fixed with lights, sensors, only running when really windy (7km/h)
506
new technofixes
iron fertilization of ocean- carbon sequestration
507
Fe fertilization
Fe severely limited in ocean
seeding ocean with Fe
causes PP bloom-- deaths sink carbon
508
problem with Fe fertilization
it also sinks the Fe.. continually seeding would be needed
509
nutrient cycling between marine and terrestrial ecosystem
downloading
| uploading
510
downloading
rivers discharge sediment, trace elements, dissolved organic matter, nitrogen, phosphates
511
downloading leads to
increased PP in estuaries and adjacent marine waters
512
after salmon spawn
carcasses in estuaries-- release nutrients (P,N)-- increased growth of ulva-- increased growth of copepods-- increased # spawning salmon survive-- increased # of salmon return next time
513
riparian zone
forest habitat adjacent to stream that is influenced by stream parameters (hydrology, nutrients)
514
chum salmon carcasses transferred to riparian zone
8 bears brought 3072 in one year
males- 2032
females- 1040
65% of salmon in stream
515
uploading
terrestrial ecosystems affected by marine
rain, tides, sea birds, commercial fishing
bears bringing salmon into riparian
516
salmon move to open ocean because
less predators
517
species dependent on salmon
>150
518
why do bears not ~affect salmon reproduction
hate salmon testes- 70% of the time took spawned-out salmon
519
how to tell male spawned out?
lose ~5% of testes by volume- measure of how many times they spawned
520
importance of salmon in bear diet
70% of yearly protein
521
limiting resource for vegetation in coastal forest
nitrogen
522
salmon nitrogen
3% of total mass is N
| contribute 120kg N/ha to riparian zone
523
N stable isotopes
14N- 99.3% of total N
| 15N
524
N standard
15N/14N of atmospheric N2
525
nitrogen isotope ratios in species
```
trees -4
deer -2
wolves 0
phytoplankton 3
zooplankton 7
salmon 12
bear 15
```
526
15N enrichment per trophic level
3ppt
527
15N study looked at
```
130 watershed coastal BC
50,000 plants
20,000 insects
density of carcasses
density of predators/scavengers
samples of feathers/hair
```
528
riparian salmon affect on birds
insects eat salmon-- burrow for 6months--1000s hatch when birds migrate-- influence migratory patterns
529
nitrogen rich/poor soil indicator
high nutrient indicator plant species- high coverage below falls
low nutrient indicator species- high coverage above falls (no salmon)
530
N in riparian plants
80% derived from salmon nutrients
531
how to tell if salmon presence affects plant growth
take ancient tree cores, hard to detect N (1200C:1N)
| appears coupled
532
N in atmosphere
78%
533
larger tree growth
appears to lag ~3yrs
534
other evidence of higher nutrient levels below falls
Winter Wren 50% more dense below falls (large salmon diet)
Insect biomass
Wolves, Bears
535
Bear hair segments
tip- spring diet
mid- summer diet
root - fall diet
536
importance of salmon and bears
40X more bears on salmon watersheds
95% of autumn protein
30-80% yearly protein
537
dual isotope model
D15N vs. D13C
538
how much salmon bears transfer
each bear- 700 salmon/ 6 weeks
539
salmon carcasses per year
1000/km/year
| 2.4 million kg
540
dominant species
salmon
541
keystone species
bears
