Chordates Part II

Question 1

aquatic mammals minimum body size

Answer 1

much larger than terrestrial

set by thermoregulatory demands of aquatic environment

Question 2

larger mass animal bones

Answer 2

allometric growth

larger bones to support the weight, larger diameter, more robust

Question 3

SA:V changes

Answer 3

as size increase, SA:V decreases
1unit cube = 6:1
2unit cube = 12:8 (1.5)
smaller ratio = lower rate of heat loss

Question 4

sphere SA:V

Answer 4

SA = 4πr^2
V = (4/3)πr^3
smaller SA:V than cube of equal volume
minimize ratio for given volume

Question 5

SA:V changes with shape

Answer 5

slender objects higher SA:V

ectotherms- lower MR, small, long, slender

Question 6

consequences of size and shape variation

Answer 6

allometric relationships
eggs per female increase with body weight
influences survivorship and reproduction

Question 7

evo devo

Answer 7

evolution and development

Question 8

gene duplication

Answer 8

single genes
segment of chromosome
whole chromosome
whole genome

Question 9

pseudogene

Answer 9

DNA sequences similar to normal genes but non-functional; as defunct relatives of functional genes

Question 10

sub-functionalization

Answer 10

pairs of genes that originate from duplication, or paralogs, take on separate functions; ancestral gene-2 functions, new gene- 1 function

Question 11

duplication events result in

Answer 11

pseudogenation
sub-functionalization
neo-functionalization

Question 12

neofunctionalization

Answer 12

one gene copy, or paralog, takes on a totally new function after a gene duplication event; adaptive mutation process; one of the gene copies must mutate to develop a new function

Question 13

functional divergence

Answer 13

genes, after gene duplication, shift in function from an ancestral function

Question 14

gene duplications =

Answer 14

bursts of diversification

Question 15

gene duplication, vertebrate evolution

Answer 15

3 episode widespread gene(ome) duplication

origin of verts, gnathostomes, teleosts

Question 16

HOX clusters

Answer 16

4 in vertebrates

7-8 in teleost

Question 17

snake venom toxins

Answer 17

co-opted from pancreatic origin
expanded by gene duplication
evolved under positive selection- neo-functionalization

Question 18

Coqui development

Answer 18

no tadpole stage
rearrangment of development program
tail resorbed before hatching
adult characters (limbs) develop directly

Question 19

frog with no direct development

Answer 19

tail growth before limb growth- gas exchange surface

Question 20

classic neo-Darwinian 3-stage view of origin of species

Answer 20

mutation- new variant
selection- altered frequency/fixation (‘new population’)
reproductive isolation- new species

Question 21

altered 4-stage evolved view of origin of species

Answer 21

mutation– new gene
re-programming- new ontogeny/individual
selection– new population
reproductive isolation– new species

Question 22

re-programming

Answer 22

developmental/embryonic/ontogenic reprogramming or repatterning

Question 23

mechanisms of developmental reprogramming

Answer 23

changes in developmental programs at various stages of life
heterotopy
heterochrony
heterometry
heterotypy

Question 24

heterotopy

Answer 24

∆ location of gene expression

Question 25

heterochrony

Answer 25

∆ timing of ≥2 processes relative to each other - onset, offset, rate of process - must be allometric

Question 26

heterometry

Answer 26

∆ amount of gene product

Question 27

heterotypy

Answer 27

∆ kind of gene product

Question 28

transformation grid

Answer 28

1 species = reference | reference points relocated in derived species to reconstruct transformed grid

Question 29

heterochronic change

Answer 29

∆ rate of development to maturity ∆ time to maturity ∆ time of onset of development alone or combined, same or different times

Question 30

classic neotony

Answer 30

axolotl- retains larval features (gills, fins)

Question 31

neotony

Answer 31

paedomorphosis, retention of ontogenetic features into adulthood

Question 32

heterochronic process graphs

Answer 32

∆ timing of development a- ancestral, d- descendant, k- rate of shape development, a- rate of onset of growth, ß- age when offset shape is attained

Question 33

paedomorphosis- development is truncated

Answer 33

deceleration hyomorphosis postdisplacement

Question 34

paedomorphosis, deceleration

Answer 34

neotony | (-k): smaller slope, lower shape change in same time of development

Question 35

paedomorphosis, hypomorphosis

Answer 35

(negative offset, progenesis) | same slope, shorter time period = smaller change in shape

Question 36

paedomorphosis, postdisplacement

Answer 36

(positive onset) | onset of growth is later, offset is same, smaller change in shape

Question 37

peramorphosis- development is extended

Answer 37

acceleration hypermorphosis predisplacement

Question 38

peramorphosis, acceleration

Answer 38

(+k), steeper slope, faster change in shape over same time period, larger change in shape overall

Question 39

peramorphosis, hypermorphosis

Answer 39

(positive offset) | start time same, end time later, longer period of development = greater change in shape

Question 40

peramorphosis, predisplacement

Answer 40

(negative onset) | start time is earlier, end time is same, longer period of development = greater change in shape

Question 41

shorter development time to maturity

Answer 41

miniaturization | either ∆ time to maturity or ∆ time of onset

Question 42

∆ time to maturity

Answer 42

progenesis

Question 43

∆ rate of development to maturity

Answer 43

neoteny

Question 44

facultative paedomorphosis

Answer 44

environmentally induced polymorphism, results in coexistence of mature, gilled, fully aquatic paedomorphic adults and transformed, terrestrial, metamorphic adults in same population really phenotypic plasticity

Question 45

peramorphosis

Answer 45

individuals of a species mature past adulthood and take on hitherto unseen traits. It is the reverse of paedomorphosis

Question 46

paedotypy

Answer 46

'paedomorphosis' but within a population- sometimes the organisms exhibit the change sometimes they do not

Question 47

paedomorphosis in relation to paedotypy

Answer 47

comparison between species | descendents exhibit the change, ancestors do not

Question 48

local heterochrony

Answer 48

changes in specific parts of body (animals are mosaics of different characters) local terms- paedotypic somatic develop., per atypic gonadal develop.

Question 49

why exhibit paedomorphosis

Answer 49

often determined by environment saves energy of metamorphosis early maturity early reproductive output

Question 50

amniote heart development

Answer 50

earlier development in all amniotes, not originally for endothermy, may be due to nature of egg-- yolk movement, gas exchange

Question 51

Tarsier

Answer 51

largest eye:body mass of all mammals | smaller than diapsids at initial devel.- allometric heterochrony

Question 52

diapsid

Answer 52

("two arches") amniote tetrapods that developed two holes (temporal fenestra) in each side of their skulls

Question 53

bird heterochrony

Answer 53

birds are miniature dinosaurs- pedomorphosis? front limb:back limb larger in birds birds have longer front limb relative to back limb positive allometry of front limb skull shape consistent w/ juvenile dino.

Question 54

bird relaxed selection of front limbs

Answer 54

allowed them to 'experiment' with limb length- feeding? | led to wing development- exaptation

Question 55

bird skulls

Answer 55

suggest pedomorphosis | retain juvenile shape overall and in bill, unlike dinosaur, alligator

Question 56

bird mosaicism

Answer 56

peramorphic- bill, front limbs | paedomorphic- skull, back limb

Question 57

ratites

Answer 57

ostrich, paedomorphic wing, skull; peramorphic hind limb, more robust skull mosaic

Question 58

mosaic animals

Answer 58

can't say an animal is paedomorphic, must be more specific

Question 59

giant anteater

Answer 59

very long snout, peramorphosis, allometric growth

Question 60

bovid, kudu

Answer 60

very elaborate horns with large skull size | peramorphosis, allometric growth

Question 61

peramorphosis in certopsian dinosaurs

Answer 61

bigger animal = larger differentiation from juvenile form

Question 62

Hawaiin honeycreepers

Answer 62

peramorphosis in none, one, or both bills

Question 63

human paedomorphosis

Answer 63

paedomorphic apes? | retention of younger developmental stages of apes

Question 64

differential heterochrony between sexes

Answer 64

sexual dimorphism blue boxfish: adult female is paedo. compared w/ male in body shape and color pattern male anglerfish

Question 65

salamander heterochrony

Answer 65

ovoviparous, viviparous | feeding much earlier in viviparous form

Question 66

vivipary

Answer 66

development of the embryo inside the body of the mother | live birth

Question 67

oviparous

Answer 67

animals that lay eggs, with little or no other development within the mother

Question 68

ovoviparous

Answer 68

develop within eggs that remain within the mother's body up until they hatch or are about to hatch

Question 69

developmental trajectory

Answer 69

gradual, slow ontogeny or steps may be condensed for quicker ontogeny into fewer steps, then if one step is skipped you see bigger changes

Question 70

salamander foot

Answer 70

B. occidentalis toes stop growing early, growth curve levels off, toes never project far out of pad--- webbed foot, suction cup

Question 71

timing of migration of neural crest cells

Answer 71

alters features, skin color | salamander- white = delayed crest cell migration- no color developed

Question 72

color derivatives of neural crest cells

Answer 72

iridophores (blue?) xanthophores (yellow) erythrophores (orange) melanocyte (black)

Question 73

organ system

Answer 73

set of organs interacting to carry out major body functions

Question 74

organ

Answer 74

body structure that integrates different tissues and carries out a specific function

Question 75

vertebrate support/locomotion organ systems

Answer 75

skeleto-muscular system

Question 76

vertebrate metabolism organ systems

Answer 76

respiratory system digestive system excretory system

Question 77

vertebrae transport organ system

Answer 77

circulatory system

Question 78

vertebrate reproduction organ system

Answer 78

reproductive system

Question 79

vertebrate integration organ system

Answer 79

neuro-endocrine system (nervous system, endocrine glands)

Question 80

vertebrate support and interaction organ

Answer 80

skin

Question 81

homeostasis

Answer 81

maintaining stability, negative feedback

Question 82

homeostasis feedback

Answer 82

environment ∆-- physiological ∆-- ∆ detected by neural receptors-- info. sent along sensory pathway-- integrator cells receive info. -- info. sent along motor pathway-- compensatory changes made by effector(s)-- conditions returned to desirable levels

Question 83

temperature regulation feedback

Answer 83

∆ detected by skin, hypothalamus-- info. sent along afferent (sensory) pathway-- neutrons receive sensory info. (brain)-- info. sent along efferent (motor) pathway-- actions

Question 84

overall feedback model

Answer 84

increase/decrease-- receptor (sensor)-- integrator-- effector(s)

Question 85

nervous system main organs

Answer 85

brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, sensory orans, coordinates homeostasis

Question 86

nervous systems present

Answer 86

in all metazoans except sponges

Question 87

endocrine system organs

Answer 87

pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, hormone-secreting glands

Question 88

muscular system organs

Answer 88

skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle- thermoregulation

Question 89

skeletal system organs

Answer 89

bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage

Question 90

integumentary system organs

Answer 90

skin, sweat glands, hair, nails; skin largest organ, multiple functions

Question 91

circulatory system organs

Answer 91

heart, blood vessels, blood; interacts w/ everything

Question 92

lymphatic system

Answer 92

lymph nodes, lymph ducts, spleen, thymus

Question 93

respiratory system organs

Answer 93

lungs, diaphragm, trachea, airways

Question 94

digestive system organs

Answer 94

pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, rectum, anus

Question 95

excretory system organs

Answer 95

kidneys, bladder, ureter, urethra

Question 96

reproductive system organs

Answer 96

ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, testes, sperm ducts, accessory glands, penis

Question 97

vertebrate coelom cavities

Answer 97

most have 2; pericardial (surrounding heart), pleura-peritoneal mammals also have 2 pleural cavities (lungs)

Question 98

coelom organs

Answer 98

organs are connected to cavity to be held in place | some organs outside of cavity (kidneys)

Question 99

useless parts

Answer 99

vestigial, 'hold overs', ancestry

Question 100

some human vestigial parts

Answer 100

third eyelid, darwin's point, wisdom teeth, erector pili, body hair, coccyx, neck rib, thirteenth rib, fifth toe, paranasal sinuses, vomeronasal organ, fellowmen reflex, extrinsic ear muscles, subclavius muscle, palmaris muscle, plantaris muscle, pyramidalis muscle, appendix, male nipples, male uterus

Question 101

third eyelid

Answer 101

Nictitating membrane- protects eye and sweep out debris, snow blindness, in birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, tiny fold in inner corner of human eye

Question 102

Darwin's point

Answer 102

small, folded point of skin at top of ear in modern humans, remnant of larger shape to focus distant sound

Question 103

wisdom teeth

Answer 103

early humans chewed lots of plants- another row of molars useful, only ~5% of population has a healthy set of 3rd molars

Question 104

erector pili

Answer 104

smooth muscle fibres allow animals (mammals) to puff up fur to insulate or intimidate - humans- goosebumps - dogs/cats- fur standing up

Question 105

body hair

Answer 105

brows- keep sweat out of eyes male facial hair- sexual selection most human body hair has no function

Question 106

coccyx

Answer 106

fused vertebrae all that is left of tail | tail lost before humans began walking upright

Question 107

neck rib

Answer 107

set of cervical ribs, leftovers from age of reptiles?, appear in <1% of population, cause nerve/artery problems, also associated w/ childhood cancer?

Question 108

thirteenth rib

Answer 108

8% of adults have 13, most of us have 12 | left over from chimps, gorillas?

Question 109

fifth toe

Answer 109

mainly for balance in humans, grasping clinging to branches in apes

Question 110

paranasal sinuses

Answer 110

nasal sinuses of ancestors may have been lined w/ odour receptors-- heightened smell, aid survival now- troublesome mucus-lined cavities, moistens air we breathe, makes head lighter

Question 111

vomeronasal organ (VNO)

Answer 111

tiny pit on each side of nasal septum filled w/ nonfunctioning chemoreceptors maybe once a pheromone detecting ability?

Question 112

flehmen reflex

Answer 112

exposes VNO just behind front teeth (like horses) | expose to air, where pheromones are expected to be present

Question 113

extrinsic ear muscles

Answer 113

trio of muscles, made it possible for pre hominids to move ears independently of heads we still have them-- ppl can wiggle ears

Question 114

subclavius muscle

Answer 114

under shoulder from 1st rib to collarbone, useful for walking on all four people have 0-2

Question 115

palmaris muscle

Answer 115

long, narrow, runs from elbow to wrist, missing in 11% of humans, may have been for hanging, climbing used for reconstructive surgery

Question 116

plantaris

Answer 116

often mistaken for a nerve useful for primate grasping with feet not present in 9% of humans

Question 117

pyramidalis

Answer 117

tiny, triangular, pouch like muscle, attached to pubic bone- from pouched marsupials? >20% of humans don't have

Question 118

appendix

Answer 118

narrow, muscular tube, attached to large intestine for digesting cellulose when humans ate more plant matter, produces some white blood cells >300,000 Americans/yr get it removed

Question 119

male nipples

Answer 119

lactiferous ducts from well before testosterone causes sex differentiation in fetus men have mammary tissue that can be stimulated to produce milk

Question 120

male uterus

Answer 120

remnant of undeveloped female reproductive organ | hangs off male prostate gland

Question 121

integument skin

Answer 121

``` injury, microbial, predator protection regulation of water regulation of Tb social interactions excretion/elimination of waste respiratory gas exchange muscle attachment sensory wrapping- shape and support ```

Question 122

integument water regulation

Answer 122

water can pass both ways but amount that can pass varies in different animals- amphibians drink through skin

Question 123

integument Tb regulation

Answer 123

hair, feathers, blood supply in skin, coloring

Question 124

integument social interactions

Answer 124

color, size of feathers, chemical attractants from glands

Question 125

skin characteristics

Answer 125

heaviest organ in body most functions remarkable repair functions interface w/ environment, serious damage = serious problems

Question 126

integument made up of

Answer 126

dermis and epidermis

Question 127

dermis

Answer 127

lower layer thick, protective functions consists of layers

Question 128

dermis made up of

Answer 128

``` stratum spongiosum stratum compactum hypodermis exoskeleton dermal plates/scales bone dentin(e), enamel chromatophores ```

Question 129

stratum spongiosum

Answer 129

most of blood vessels that feed other layers of skin

Question 130

stratum compactum

Answer 130

more compact layer below spongiosum

Question 131

hypodermis

Answer 131

covering of muscles, fat deposits, muscles that allow skin to move relative to rest of body

Question 132

dermis characteristics

Answer 132

collagenous and elastic fibres, fibroblasts, bones, scales, nerve fibres, blood vessels, smooth muscle, mesodermal

Question 133

exoskeleton

Answer 133

reptiles, turtles, crocodiles

Question 134

enamel

Answer 134

hydroxyapatite | less fibrous, harder (than bone or dentin)

Question 135

fossil agnathans

Answer 135

ostracoderms | elaborate bony armour

Question 136

derivatives of primitive dermal bone

Answer 136

lamellar bone spongy bone dentin enamel

Question 137

denticle

Answer 137

dentin + enamel

Question 138

placoid shark scale

Answer 138

lamellar bone + dentin + enamel

Question 139

kinds of bone

Answer 139

dermal/membane bone | endochondral bone

Question 140

dermal bone

Answer 140

formed in membranes intramembranous ossification exoskeleton, dematocranium

Question 141

endochondral bone

Answer 141

formed in cartilage endochondral ossification endoskeleton

Question 142

chromatophores

Answer 142

dermis produced color, stellate, cells and pigment granules within move around melanophores liphophores iridophores

Question 143

stellate

Answer 143

neurons with several dendrites radiating from the cell body giving them a star shape

Question 144

melanophores

Answer 144

contain melanin (dark pigment)

Question 145

excess melanin

Answer 145

melanistic = black

Question 146

lack of melanin

Answer 146

albinistic - very conspicuous, low survival

Question 147

liphophores

Answer 147

contain corotanoids | xanthophores (yellow), erythrophores (red)

Question 148

fossil dermis findings

Answer 148

skin pigments in extinct animals, convergence of melanism

Question 149

ToF-SIMS to detect melanin

Answer 149

time-of-flight secondary mass spectrometry | composition & spatial distribution of surface molecules, including comparisons w/ spectra of melanin

Question 150

SEM to detect melanin

Answer 150

scanning electron microscopy | presence of ovoid bodies consistent w/ melanophores

Question 151

EDX to detect melanin

Answer 151

energy-dispersive x-ray microanlysis | carbon associated w/ skin and not adjacent sediment

Question 152

evidence of melanism in 3 extinct animals

Answer 152

3 marine reptiles, each lineage secondarily aquatic | Ichtyopterygia, Mosasauroidea (Squamata), Eosphargis (Testudines, turtle?)

Question 153

melanin function

Answer 153

thermoregulations- especially in turtle? | crypsis- ichthyosaur lacks countershading (deep diving habit, background matching in low light)

Question 154

iridophores

Answer 154

contain crystal plates made of guanine- reflect light, influence perceived color

Question 155

cyanophore

Answer 155

blue pigment, very rare, only known in a few species of fish

Question 156

color changing

Answer 156

position of chromatophore ∆ distribution of pigment granules w/i chromatophore seasonal moult

Question 157

shifts in relative position of chromatophores

Answer 157

chromatophores- ameoboid | ex. if yellow pigments move onto of black pigments

Question 158

distribution of pigment granules within chromatophore

Answer 158

densely packed or dispersed- density of color

Question 159

seasonal moult

Answer 159

``` of plumage (birds) or pelage (mammals) color in epidermal structures can be 'dropped' ```

Question 160

chameleons color changing

Answer 160

interactions- agressive, courting antipredator response dominant individual use color as social signal

Question 161

sexual dichromatism

Answer 161

sexual dimorphism | greater in breeding season than rest of year- spend energy to enhance breeding color

Question 162

seasonal color change

Answer 162

camouflage, varies geographically, may be shown some places and not others, background matching, moult btw color change

Question 163

seasonal color change examples

Answer 163

``` Arctic Hare (Lepus arcticus) Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus muta) ```

Question 164

ontogenetic color change

Answer 164

color change through life, younger animals generally more vulnerable

Question 165

ontogenetic change examples

Answer 165

mule deer- baby spotted, camouflage when laying down | Racer- snake, adults plain blue/grey, blotches on young

Question 166

structural color

Answer 166

physical properties of body colouring especially dramatic in birds feathers refract light in various ways- differences in angle we look at it

Question 167

blue amphibians

Answer 167

rare, usually not due to pigment, light is scattered by iridophores

Question 168

chromatophore layers

Answer 168

``` filtering layer (xanthophore), scattering layer (iridophore), absorbing layer (melanophore) short λ (blue-green) largely absorbed by filter. med λ (yellow-green) pass through filter.- scattered by scattering layer- back through filter long λ (red-orange) - pass through filtering and scattering, absorbed by absorbing layer ```

Question 169

parts of epidermis

Answer 169

stratum corneum stratum germinativum derivatives

Question 170

stratum corneum

Answer 170

outer layer, shed old cells in flakes or one piece

Question 171

stratum germinativum

Answer 171

below corneum, source of new cells which move up to outer layer

Question 172

epidermis derivatives

Answer 172

``` various function glands keratinized structures (nails, claws, hooves, scales/scutes, hair, feathers, horns, antlers, foot pads, beaks) ```

Question 173

glands

Answer 173

are IN dermis | BUT epidermal in origin

Question 174

hair

Answer 174

dips down into dermis BUT epidermal derivative

Question 175

keratin/lipids

Answer 175

barriers to water loss and UV | amounts of keratin are variable among taxa

Question 176

mucus glands

Answer 176

moisture, gas exchange, cooling

Question 177

granular glands

Answer 177

produce defence toxins

Question 178

epidermal glands

Answer 178

mucous, poison, scent, sweat, sebaeous, mammary, uropygial

Question 179

sebaceous gland

Answer 179

base of hair, lubricant for skin

Question 180

uropygial glands

Answer 180

base of tail in birds, preening feathers, produces oil

Question 181

mammarly glands

Answer 181

nipple- many ducts | teat- single duct

Question 182

fish scales

Answer 182

bony scales, dermal, permanent, not shed, only lost through injury, persist throughout life, new growth every year

Question 183

reptile scale

Answer 183

horny scales, epidermal, shed, called scutes

Question 184

claw, beak, horn structure

Answer 184

central bony core, covered by vascularized dermis, outer epithelial layer

Question 185

hair

Answer 185

keratonous, not modified scales, novel, grow from bone throughout life, multiple kinds (fine coat, second coat (guard hairs) grow through to provide protection)

Question 186

feathers

Answer 186

down- close to body, small feathers, insulation body contour feathers- grow through flight feathers- moulted periodically and replaced, occur in tracks along body

Question 187

skin as a sensory organ

Answer 187

touch receptors, transmitting pain, temperature, itch, touch information to CNS important interface between body and environment

Question 188

skin receptors

Answer 188

nociceptors, pruriceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptor, hair/glabrous skin, lips/tongue/cheeks, mystical pads, tactile foraging

Question 189

nociceptors

Answer 189

pain

Question 190

pruriceptor

Answer 190

itch

Question 191

hair/glabrous skin reception

Answer 191

glabbrous/nebrous skin- free of hair (palms, soles) | discriminative touch- clearly distinguish differences in objects, descriminate more clearly

Question 192

lips/tongue/inner cheeks reception

Answer 192

localization and movement of food

Question 193

mystacial pads, vibrissae

Answer 193

snout of animals, long whiskers vibrotactility, navigation, spatial orientation in dark extend sensitivity beyond skin surface

Question 194

tactile foraging

Answer 194

snout of star nose mole | elaborate w/ tentacles extremely sensitive to touch, finds way around and food

Question 195

fish sounds

Answer 195

>700 known vocal species

Question 196

fish sounds

Answer 196

simple vs complex | same frequency, varying frequency/amplitude (moans, growls, peals)

Question 197

how do fish make sounds

Answer 197

stridulation air passage drumming

Question 198

stridulation (fish sounds)

Answer 198

rubbing/scraping together fins, bones, teeth

Question 199

air passage (fish sounds)

Answer 199

little understood, internal movement of air, escape of air through mouth, gills, anus (farts), FRT- frequently repetitive ticks

Question 200

waveform

Answer 200

amplitude vs. times

Question 201

spectrogram

Answer 201

frequency (kHz) vs. time (s)

Question 202

types of FRTs

Answer 202

3 types- FRT1, FRT2, FRT4 | ~2-8kHz, ~50-60dB, differ in amplitude

Question 203

drumming (fish sounds)

Answer 203

'sonic' muscles pushing/pulling on internal air/swim bladder males have longer muscles than females

Question 204

why/when fish are vocal

Answer 204

spawning, courtship, agression, territorial, distress, predator/prey behaviour

Question 205

cod drumming muscles

Answer 205

larger in males larger at spawning time correlated with fertilization potential

Question 206

haddock courtship behaviour

Answer 206

pulse repetition rate changes at each stage of courtship- increases in frequency

Question 207

studying fish sounds

Answer 207

passive acoustics | technology

Question 208

passive acoustics

Answer 208

simply listening to sounds w/ hydrophones | non-invasive, non-visual (light not needed), continuous remote monitoring, provides detailed behaviour info

Question 209

technology (fish sounds)

Answer 209

AULS ROVs Autonomous glider

Question 210

AULS

Answer 210

autonomous underwater listening stations

Question 211

ROVs

Answer 211

remotely operated vehicle

Question 212

autonomous glider

Answer 212

buoyancy-drive AUV | moves through water independently, no engine, moves via density changes

Question 213

ecological uses of fish sounds

Answer 213

locate vocal fishes determine when fish are vocal study of underwater noise effects examine fish interactions

Question 214

locating vocal fishes

Answer 214

identify essential fish habitat (EFH) locate spawning habitats exploration of the seas census of marine life

Question 215

determining when fish are vocal- season and time of day

Answer 215

spawning behaviour predator/prey interaction foraging territorial defense

Question 216

studying underwater noise effects

Answer 216

identify noise sources and levels quantify temporal/spatial patterns in noise quantify noise impact on fish behaviour

Question 217

cusk-eel

Answer 217

found in Cape Cod by low tech passive acoustic methods, call in chorus just after sunset, tracks time of sunset through summer,

Question 218

Haddock

Answer 218

using AULS 1000m deep, first in situ recordings in NA, recorded daily vocal activities- more vocal late in day, spawn mostly at night-

Question 219

freshwater drum in hudson river

Answer 219

widely distributed highly vocal family, invasive, may spawn within canals that drain into Hudson

Question 220

how did FW drum make it to hudson river

Answer 220

track acoustic path, with emphasis on spawning locations | found drum sounds in lake champlain canal, expected to spread dramatically and may alter rivers ecosystem

Question 221

NEPTUNE canada subsea instruments

Answer 221

Hydrophones, seismometer, piezometer, bottom pressure recorder, gravimeter

Question 222

piezometer

Answer 222

measure liquid pressure

Question 223

gravimeter

Answer 223

measure local gravitational field

Question 224

penetrometers

Answer 224

moisture, strength, harness of substrate

Question 225

VENUS

Answer 225

Strait of Georgia, Saanich Inlet UVic data archive, shore station, instrument platforms, nodes, autonomous vehicles, surface monitoring by BC ferries, satellites, gliders, profiling system

Question 226

noisy ocean

Answer 226

peak listening is 1-10kHz (low frequency), lots of anthropogenic noise

Question 227

fish hearing

Answer 227

fish have 2 inner ears, no middle or external ear, inner ear similar to other verts., sensory hair cells responsible for converting sound to electrical signal

Question 228

potential effects on hearing

Answer 228

``` high intensity (transient)- fatigue, damage or kill sensory hair cells low intensity (shipping)- may have behavioural and physiological consequences ```

Question 229

fish sensory cells

Answer 229

can be replace or repaired, unlike mammals

Question 230

pile driving noise

Answer 230

direct mortality in surfperches | startle and alarm responses when exposed to air gun- rockfish, tighter school, school collapse, become motionless

Question 231

behavioural effects of noise

Answer 231

distribution fitness- reduced growth, reprod. predator-prey interaction- interference communication- range reduction, info loss

Question 232

shipping noise

Answer 232

most extensive source of noise in ocean, especially along major shipping channels

Question 233

reproductive consequences

Answer 233

physiological stress, restricting mate finding, keeping fish from preferred spawn sites

Question 234

masking communicative sounds

Answer 234

impact ability of fish to communicate acoustically or use acoustic 'soundscape' to learn about envrionment

Question 235

masking predator-prey relationships

Answer 235

affect ability to find prey or detect presence of predators

Question 236

skeletomuscular system

Answer 236

vertebrate characteristic internal, jointed skeleton (bone or cartilage) works with muscular system

Question 237

skeletomuscular functions

Answer 237

``` support of body movement via joints enclosure/protection of vital organs storage of minerals assistance in lung ventilation (amniotes) ```

Question 238

skeletomuscular body support

Answer 238

ligaments, tendons, muscles

Question 239

skeletomuscular mineral storage

Answer 239

Cap, P, Mg in bones

Question 240

skeltomuscular lung ventilation

Answer 240

muscles connected to ribs

Question 241

important connective tissues

Answer 241

``` cartilage bone ligaments tendons muscle ```

Question 242

cartilage

Answer 242

``` matrix collagen chondroblasts chondrocytes lacuna(e) ```

Question 243

chondrocytes

Answer 243

only cells found in healthy cartilage; produce and maintain cartilaginous matrix

Question 244

chondroblasts

Answer 244

make cartilage matrix

Question 245

lacuna(e)

Answer 245

hole in which cells grow

Question 246

cartilage characteristics

Answer 246

more flexible than bone most skeletons start w/ cartilage offer support, bone growth no blood vessels

Question 247

types of cartilage

Answer 247

Hyaline Fibrocartilage Elastic

Question 248

Hyaline cartilage

Answer 248

'temporary' cartilage during growth; most articulations, ribs, nose, larynx; least elastic; low collagen

Question 249

Fibrocartilage

Answer 249

intervertebral disks, other joints (meniscus in knee); load bearing; show absorption; joint stabilization; able to resist pressure w/ minimum friction; moderately elastic; moderate collagen

Question 250

Elastic cartilage

Answer 250

pinna, epiglottis, other parts of visceral skeleton; vibrational properties help emit/receive sound; most elastic; most collagen

Question 251

knee minisci

Answer 251

important for knew function- load bearing, shock absorption, joint stabilization, joint lubrication, proprioception

Question 252

proprioception

Answer 252

ability to sense stimuli arising within the body regarding position, motion, and equilibrium

Question 253

bone properties

Answer 253

``` support and locomotion organic components mineral components mineral reserves dynamic ```

Question 254

bone support and locomotion

Answer 254

balance between stiffness (hardness) and toughness (strength)

Question 255

bone organic components

Answer 255

ex. collagen toughness and elasticity resistance to tensile loads

Question 256

bone mineral components

Answer 256

ex. hydroxyapatite | stiffness, resistance to compressive loads

Question 257

bone mineral reserves

Answer 257

Ca, P, Mg

Question 258

bones, dynamic

Answer 258

modeling and remodelling | reabsorption and deposition

Question 259

bone parts

Answer 259

``` osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast lacunae, canaliculi compact, spongy marrow woven, lamellar periosteum ```

Question 260

osteoblasts

Answer 260

cells with single nuclei that synthesize bone

Question 261

osteocytes

Answer 261

star-shaped cell, is the most commonly found cell in mature bone

Question 262

osteoclasts

Answer 262

type of bone cell that resorbs bone tissue. This function is critical in the maintenance and repair, and remodelling of bones

Question 263

bone lacunae and canaliculi

Answer 263

small canals between cells, blood cells and transport materials

Question 264

periosteum

Answer 264

protective sheath around bones that connects to blood vessels and other structures like tendons

Question 265

osteon

Answer 265

fundamental functional unit of much compact bone; bundle of blood vessels and lacunae

Question 266

two types of tissue that form bone

Answer 266

compact | spongy

Question 267

compact bone

Answer 267

cortical; facilitates bone's main functions: to support the whole body, protect organs, provide levers for movement, store/release calcium; forms the cortex (outer shell) of most bones

Question 268

spongy bone

Answer 268

cancellous, trabecular bone; higher SA:mass; less dense; softer, weaker, more flexible; suitable for metabolic activity-exchanges Ca; typically found at ends of long bones- proximal to joints, within interior of vertebrae; highly vascular; frequently contains red bone marrow- hematopoiesis

Question 269

marrow

Answer 269

``` flexible tissue in interior of bones, 2 types yellow: fat red: blood cells birth- all red adult- 1/2 red ```

Question 270

hematopoiesis

Answer 270

production of blood cells

Question 271

woven bone

Answer 271

no uniform structure; early development; eventually replaced by lamellar bone

Question 272

lamellar bone

Answer 272

compact, spongy, vascular canals, osteons, 'plywood' structure

Question 273

plywood structure

Answer 273

regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets (lamellae), mechanically strong, much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue

Question 274

bone stiffness

Answer 274

trade-off with toughness high T low S: collagen-- wood-- chitin-- bone-- tooth dentin-- mollusk shell-- tooth enamel-- glass, concrete, rocks, pottery

Question 275

strain

Answer 275

dimensionless, epsilon = ∆length/length

Question 276

stress vs. strain plot

Answer 276

elastic region-- yield point-- plastic region- fracture point

Question 277

elastic region (stress vs. strain)

Answer 277

increases with high slope rubber band like steeper slope = less elastic

Question 278

plastic region (stress vs. strain)

Answer 278

much lower slope increasing | stays together but is deformed

Question 279

fracture point (stress vs. strain)

Answer 279

material breaks

Question 280

stress

Answer 280

sigma = F/A

Question 281

tissue stiffness =

Answer 281

y / x (stress/strain) | >yield pt. - yield or failure

Question 282

bone elasticity

Answer 282

0. 007% of strain 0. 003 normal strain 0. 015 results in fracture

Question 283

ossification involves

Answer 283

direct or indirect | heterotropic bones

Question 284

membranous ossification

Answer 284

direct laying down of bone- dermal armour, dermatocranium, parts of visceral skeleton, clavicle, others

Question 285

endochondral ossification

Answer 285

indirect, cartilage precursor- most of axial and appendicular skeleton

Question 286

ossification

Answer 286

laying down new bone material by osteoblasts- bone tissue formation

Question 287

Heterotopic bones

Answer 287

isolated bones formed outside skeleton proper

Question 288

sesamoid bones

Answer 288

small bones associated w/ tendons, joints; Often form in response to strain; act like pulleys, prove smooth surface for tendons to slide over increasing muscular forces

Question 289

long bone structure

Answer 289

epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis

Question 290

epiphysis

Answer 290

rounded end of a long bone, at its joint with adjacent bone(s)

Question 291

diaphysis

Answer 291

the long midsection of the long bone

Question 292

curious heterotopic bones

Answer 292

baculum, baubellum | Os penis, os clitoridis

Question 293

baculum

Answer 293

penis bone, penile bone or os penis; bone found in the penis of many placental mammals, absent in human, function unknown- lock and key? some have projections, trident

Question 294

baubellum

Answer 294

os clitoridis – a bone in the clitoris

Question 295

bird bones

Answer 295

light skeleton, not necessarily light bones, hollow bones- air filled, not marrow filled; very dense bones, especially cranial compared w/ other animals

Question 296

pneumaticity

Answer 296

air spaces in bones

Question 297

post cranial pneumaticity

Answer 297

only birds, dinosaurs, perhaps gas exchange system

Question 298

bone density

Answer 298

proportional to bone stiffness and strength

Question 299

dense bone

Answer 299

stiffer, stronger, heavier

Question 300

bone density vs. shape graph

Answer 300

heavy-light density vs. less-more rigid shape min. density and rigidity = low stiffness and strength max density and rigidity = high stiff. and strength isoclines of stiffness and strength

Question 301

medullary bone

Answer 301

woven bone, female birds, formed seasonally, prior to and during egg-laying, Ca reservoir for building hard eggshell

Question 302

3 kinds of eggshells

Answer 302

hard flexible soft

Question 303

hard shell

Answer 303

self-contained, rigid, fossils | calcareous matter dominates; tortoise, bird, dino, croc, gecko

Question 304

flexible shell

Answer 304

needs water, calcareous layer loose, some fossils; turtles

Question 305

soft shell

Answer 305

needs water, organic matter dominates, no fossils, gecko, tuatara, lizard, snake

Question 306

crocodilian egg laying

Answer 306

pre-ovulatory hpercalcemia (takes 40% of Ca to make eggshells), no medullary bone formed

Question 307

medullary bone significance

Answer 307

underscores evolutionary link btw. bird and dino similar reproductive bio means of sex ID in dino

Question 308

ligaments

Answer 308

hold bones together, provide support, connective tissue, typically collagen

Question 309

patellar ligament

Answer 309

between patella and tibia | holds tibia and femur together

Question 310

2 main skeleton classifications

Answer 310

endoskeleton, exoskeleton | OR cranial, postcranial

Question 311

exoskeleton

Answer 311

within integument keratinized exo. - epidermis bony exo. - dermis

Question 312

endoskeleton

Answer 312

deep, within body bony endo. cartilagenous endo. notochord

Question 313

cranial skeleton

Answer 313

splanchnocranium chondrocranium (cartilage) dermatocranium

Question 314

postranial skeleton

Answer 314

axial skeleton | appendicular skeleton

Question 315

axial skeleton

Answer 315

vertebral column | notochord

Question 316

appendicular skeleton

Answer 316

limbs | girdle

Question 317

endoskeleton cartilage bone

Answer 317

vertebrae, ribs, limb bones

Question 318

endoskeleton membrane bone

Answer 318

centra (teleost), sesamoid

Question 319

exoskeleton dermal bone

Answer 319

skull roof, dentary, clavicle, gastrula, fish scales, osteoderm

Question 320

gastralia

Answer 320

dermal bones found in ventral body wall of crocodilian/Sphenodon, between sternum and pelvis, do not articulate with vertebrae, support for abdomen, attachment sites for abdominal muscles

Question 321

sphenodon

Answer 321

tuatara

Question 322

main components of the skeleton

Answer 322

dermal endoskeleton: somatic (axial, appendicular), visceral median fin

Question 323

median fin

Answer 323

one of the unpaired (i.e. dorsal, anal, and caudal) fins, restricted to fish, stability, propulsion

Question 324

nuchal ligament

Answer 324

supports head, keeps it upright

Question 325

degree of exoskeleton

Answer 325

greatly varies in all taxa

Question 326

origin of vertebrate head skeleton

Answer 326

deep homology and co-option (exaptation) | spread of tissue through head (neural crest), not evolution of new skeletal tissue

Question 327

axial skeleton

Answer 327

braincase, vertebral column, ribs

Question 328

braincase

Answer 328

endochondral part of skull

Question 329

vertebral column

Answer 329

backbone, tail, articulating vertebrae

Question 330

first vertebra

Answer 330

atlas- allows up and down motion of head

Question 331

atlas articulates with

Answer 331

occipital condyle(s) on back of braincase

Question 332

second vertebra in amniotes

Answer 332

axis- allows rotary motion of head

Question 333

parts of vertebra

Answer 333

centrum, neural arch and spine, zygapophyses (pre and post), diapophyses

Question 334

occipital condyles

Answer 334

1 or 2 in tetrapods | undersurface protuberances of the occipital bone, articulates w/ superior facets of the atlas vertebra

Question 335

centrum

Answer 335

main body of vertebra

Question 336

neural arch

Answer 336

above centrum, spinal cord runs through

Question 337

zygapophyses

Answer 337

projections of the vertebra that fit with adjacent vertebra; articulation, lateral/up/down motion, resist portion

Question 338

diapophyses

Answer 338

the part of the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra that articulates with its corresponding rib

Question 339

vertebrate lateral motion

Answer 339

many vert., including tetrapods, use lateral motion for locomotion, mammals- minimally

Question 340

fish vertebral column

Answer 340

less flexible, without zygapophysis

Question 341

dimetrodon

Answer 341

elaborate extension of neural spines, probably supported sail, evidence of vascularized tissue- thermoregulation, and/or social signalling

Question 342

regionalizations of vertebral column

Answer 342

Trunk- Presacral, Cervical, Dorsal, Sacral | Caudal

Question 343

Dorsal vertebra

Answer 343

thoracic, lumbar

Question 344

frog vertebral column

Answer 344

very short, don't bend well, highly reduced

Question 345

mammal cervical vertebrae

Answer 345

7, typically do not have ribs

Question 346

mammal ribs

Answer 346

thoracic vertebrae

Question 347

mammal caudal vertebrae

Answer 347

tail, coccyx

Question 348

urostyle

Answer 348

long bone-fused vertebrae at base of vertebral column, frogs and toads

Question 349

bird vertebral column

Answer 349

stiff, lots of fusion, clavicle + inter clavicle = wishbone

Question 350

wishbone

Answer 350

furcula, fusion of two clavicle bones

Question 351

snake vertebral column

Answer 351

many vertebrae, large range of motion

Question 352

autotomy

Answer 352

self amputation

Question 353

lizard autotomy

Answer 353

fracture planes in vertebrae separate w/ muscle movement; tail moves back and forth rapidly, builds up lactic acid regenerated tail is different- cartilaginous

Question 354

Ribs

Answer 354

protect organs, used in breathing (muscle attachment), modified in various groups (ex. turtle)

Question 355

tetrapod ribs

Answer 355

homologous w/ fish dorsal ribs attached to sternum ventrally reduction/loss (ex. anuran) extras (ex. snakes)

Question 356

fish ribs

Answer 356

dorsal/ventral/both

Question 357

cobra

Answer 357

cervical ribs 'spread out' to give the illusion of being larger

Question 358

Draco, lizard

Answer 358

wings, ribs articulate w/ vertebrae to spread out skin and form wings

Question 359

rib newt

Answer 359

pierces own body wall w/ ribs to spread toxin

Question 360

importance of sternum

Answer 360

not in animals that move ribs | very in animals that don't, especially birds (keel)

Question 361

appendicular skeleton

Answer 361

limbs, girdles

Question 362

tetrapod pelvic girdle

Answer 362

firmly attached to sacrum- hind limbs need firm attachment to provide thrust (not in fishes)

Question 363

sacrum

Answer 363

large, triangular bone at base of spine and upper, back of pelvic cavity, inserted between hip bones, number of fused vertebrae

Question 364

number of vertebrae in sacrum

Answer 364

dogs- 3 | humans, horses - 5

Question 365

tetrapod pectoral girdle

Answer 365

not attached to head, often not attached to vertebral column (except in brachiators, flyers) fishes- firmly attached to head

Question 366

brachiators

Answer 366

primate, firm attachment of pectoral girdle for swinging

Question 367

humerus, radius, ulna

Answer 367

present in crossopterygian- tetrapods- amniotes | deep homology, homologies in limbs

Question 368

homologies

Answer 368

Similar characteristics due to relatedness

Question 369

pelvic girdle bones

Answer 369

ilium, pubis, ischium

Question 370

clavicle

Answer 370

present in fish and tetrapods- lost in some groups only dermal element in mammal pectoral girdle variable presence in mammals

Question 371

mammal clavicle presence

Answer 371

present- human, bats reduced- cats most carnivores- absent or rudimentary

Question 372

manus

Answer 372

carpals + metacarpals + phalanges

Question 373

pes

Answer 373

tarsals + metatarsals + phalanges

Question 374

variations in tetrapod manus and pes

Answer 374

homologies

Question 375

convergences

Answer 375

fins, reduction/loss of fins, legs, 'flippers', wings, loss of flight, body elongation, reduction/loss of digits/limbs

Question 376

functions of digits in tetrapods

Answer 376

support locomotion digging grasping- perching, climbing, food manipulation

Question 377

grasping behaviour in tetrapods

Answer 377

well conserved, chiefly arboreal life, feeding very well-developed in tree frogs (manual and pedal) best developed in mammals (manual and pedal)

Question 378

grasping behaviour birds

Answer 378

front limbs modified to wings- grasping behaviour with back limbs, diverse toe configuration

Question 379

grasping in lizards

Answer 379

negotiating complex habitat, varying degrees of manual and pedal grasping

Question 380

grasping in unrelated tree frogs

Answer 380

convergence | suckers for gripping, digits that can wrap around branches

Question 381

most bipedal tetrapod

Answer 381

birds, longer history of bipedalism that we do

Question 382

modular locomotor system

Answer 382

hindlimb adapted for bipedal locomotion shift from ab. muscle-- back limbs for locomotor shift from tail counter weight in dino.-- knee as centre of gravity for straight back

Question 383

theropod dinosaurs leading up to birds

Answer 383

all bipedal

Question 384

joints

Answer 384

were bones meet, where all normal muscular function happens

Question 385

kinds of joints

Answer 385

immoveable slightly moveable freely moveable

Question 386

immoveable joints

Answer 386

synarthrosis bones meet at a suture, associated w/ connective tissue ex. skull bones

Question 387

slightly moveable

Answer 387

amphiarthrosis usually cartilage and connective tissue btw. bones, quite variable, ex. pubic symphysis (moves for child birth), spinal column

Question 388

freely moveable

Answer 388

diarthrosis; synovial joint | subtypes: hinge joints, ball and socket joints, etc.

Question 389

spinal column moveability

Answer 389

joints btw vertebrae, vertebrae move against each other but movement is limited

Question 390

types of synarthrosis

Answer 390

serrate joint, scarf joint (wedge shape), butt joint (flush), peg and socket, lap joint (edges overtop each other, rare)

Question 391

hinge joint

Answer 391

finger, knee, elbow; one-way movement

Question 392

ball and socket joint

Answer 392

hip, shoulder; rotary motion

Question 393

synovial fluid

Answer 393

reduces friction between articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement (freely moveable joints)

Question 394

skull parts

Answer 394

chondrocranium splanchnocranium dermatocranium

Question 395

chondrocranium origins

Answer 395

neurocranium, braincase- somatic | and neural crest

Question 396

splanchnocranium origin

Answer 396

visceral skeleton, facial skeleton- from branchial arches | and neural crest

Question 397

dermatocranium origin

Answer 397

skull roof- dermal | and neural crest

Question 398

first gill arch

Answer 398

gnathostome jaw

Question 399

second gill arch

Answer 399

hyomandiubular

Question 400

jaw suspensions

Answer 400

amphistyly hyostyly autostyly streptostyly

Question 401

amphistyly

Answer 401

mandibular arch supported in part by hyomandibular, primitive Chondrichthyes

Question 402

hyostyly

Answer 402

mandibular arch supported primarily by hyomandibula- Chondrichthyes, Actinopterygia

Question 403

Autostyly

Answer 403

mandibular arch not supported by hyomandibule- Dipnoi, Tetrapoda

Question 404

Steptostyly

Answer 404

quadrate bone moveable- Aves, Squamates

Question 405

fate of meckel's cartilage, arch 1

Answer 405

Articular (teleost, amph., reptile)--- Malleus (mammals)

Question 406

fate of palatoquadrate, arch 1

Answer 406

quadrate (teleost, amph., reptile)---- Incus (mammals)

Question 407

fate of hyomandibula, arch 2

Answer 407

hyomandibula (teleost)-- stapes (amph., reptile., mammal)

Question 408

upper jaw teeth

Answer 408

mammals- restricted to 2 bones | other vets., more bones can support teeth

Question 409

types of teeth

Answer 409

incisors- ripping canines- stabbing molars- chewing

Question 410

carnivore dentition

Answer 410

incisors in front, large sharp canines, pointy triangular premolars, couple of molars

Question 411

herbivore dentition

Answer 411

few small incisors, canines, space with no teeth, few premolars and molars- flat

Question 412

omnivore dentition

Answer 412

teeth in same order but not much differences in shape/size, all relatively flat, fit together tightly, no spaces

Question 413

temporal fenestration in amniotes

Answer 413

openings in side of skull, defined relative to position of bones; anapsid, synapsid, parapsid, diapsid

Question 414

anapsid

Answer 414

ancestral, stem, lacking opening, early reptiles, turtles

Question 415

diapsid

Answer 415

2 temporal fenestrae behind orbit, one superior and one inferior; dinosaurs, crocodilians, birds, tuaturas, lizards, snakes

Question 416

synapsid

Answer 416

1 temporal fenestra behind the eye, below the postorbital bone, like the lower fenestrae in diapsids; extinct reptiles, mammals

Question 417

parapsid

Answer 417

(euryapsids) extinct, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs; 1 fenestra behind the eye, above the postorbital, similar to upper fenestra of diapsids

Question 418

streptostyly

Answer 418

quadrate bone rotates, increases mobility of jaws, lizards, snakes; 2 joints for jaw- one can be locked while other moves- more fore/apt movement, can swing out, can aid tongue projection, more forceful bite, can change in-lever

Question 419

temporal fenestration in reptiles

Answer 419

sphenodon, crocs- unmodified diapsid lizards- lower temporal bar lost- freeing quadrate snakes- lower and upper bar lost, very open skull, highly developed streptostyly, more moveable quadrate

Question 420

mammal temporal fenestration

Answer 420

temporal opening expanded and became confluent w/ orbital opening; bar btw eye and temporal fenestra lost large open side of skull- large muscle attachment

Question 421

turtle fenestration

Answer 421

anapsid but debatable- may be diapsid and secondarily anapsid

Question 422

what is the function of temporal fenestrae

Answer 422

lighten skull without weakening, provide margins for muscle attachment, space for muscles to bulge out

Question 423

pattern of temporal bar evolution in diapsids, especially squamates

Answer 423

lower temporal bar is lost very early in history of diapsids, is re-aquired in tuatara and others to reduce stress

Question 424

function of derived lower bar in tuatara

Answer 424

reduction of stress on skull

Question 425

squamate

Answer 425

scaled reptiles, are the largest recent order of reptiles, comprising all lizards and snakes

Question 426

change from anapsid-- diapsid

Answer 426

muscles from neurocranium to lower jaw (anapsid)-- fenestra opens in dermatocranium-- attachment of jaw muscles expands to edges of openings (therapsid)-- jaw muscles attach to surface of dermatocranium (diapsid, synapsid)

Question 427

zygomatic arch

Answer 427

cheek bone, zygomatic process of temporal bone- a bone extending forward from the side of the skull, over the opening of the ear

Question 428

loss of lower temporal bar

Answer 428

allowed more musculature jaw-- increases stresses on skull when animal bites-- opened possibility for streptostyly

Question 429

fixed quadrate

Answer 429

more stress on skull with biting

Question 430

cranial kinesis

Answer 430

metakinesis, mesokinesis, prokinesis | movement of skull roof relative to braincase

Question 431

metakinesis

Answer 431

joint between brain case and back of skull is at back of skull

Question 432

mesokinesis

Answer 432

joint is in middle of skull- near orbits

Question 433

prokinesis

Answer 433

joint in front of the orbit where snout articulates

Question 434

symphysis

Answer 434

fibrocartilaginous fusion between two bones

Question 435

evolution of snake gate

Answer 435

multiple joints all over skull, extremely mobile symphysis, not fixed like in humans, stretches

Question 436

sphenodon skull

Answer 436

lower temporal bar, smaller jaw muscles and lower bite force than similar sized lizards, propalineal feeding, mastication (chew food more than other reptiles), handles food longer

Question 437

croc. temporal bar

Answer 437

have bar, have strongest absolute bite of any living tetrapod; lizards the size of an alligator would have a much stronger bite (temporal bar lowers bite force)

Question 438

propalineal feeding

Answer 438

close mouth- lower jaw in slightly posterior position-- jaw slides forward- slides back in forth with food between teeth- temporal bar stabilizes jaw

Question 439

secondary palate

Answer 439

found in various amniotes | best known in mammals

Question 440

palate evolution

Answer 440

primary palate (early tetrapod)-- growth across primary palate, shelf of bone (therapsid)-- passageway btw primary and secondary palate, moves internal naris farther back into mouth, separate passage for eating and breathing (mammal)

Question 441

internal naris

Answer 441

choana- the paired openings between the nasal cavity and the nasopharynx

Question 442

succling mammal secondary palate

Answer 442

soft palate pressed against epiglottis- 2nd seal, allows swallowing milk and breathing (through nose)- disappears in adults because trachea drops

Question 443

uvula

Answer 443

projection from posterior edge of middle of soft palate; almost completely unique to humans, unknown function and origin, involved in speech?

Question 444

secondary palate bones

Answer 444

mammals- maxilla, premaxilla, palatine | crocs- those 3 + 1 more.. pterygoid?

Question 445

why crocs have more elaborate secondary palate

Answer 445

flap closes off passageway for air, from water in mouth, so it can sit in the water for long periods of time ready to snap jaws shut

Question 446

palate and stiffness

Answer 446

skull less resistant to bending if palate removed | maximum resistant with full palate

Question 447

functions of muscular system

Answer 447

movement of body and parts, support, posture, protection of joints, internal transport, homeostatic adjustments, protein storage, metabolic heat production

Question 448

muscular system internal transport

Answer 448

aids movements in blood vessels, digestive tract, reproductive tract

Question 449

muscular system homeostatic adjustments

Answer 449

eyes- pupils constricting/dialating

Question 450

muscular system heat production

Answer 450

shivering

Question 451

blood flow musculature during before-during exercise

Answer 451

``` drastically change supply of blood to different body parts kidneys: 24% - 1% brain: 13% - 3% skin: 9% - 2% heart: 4.3% - 4.% skeletal muscle: 21% - 88% ```

Question 452

types of muscle tissue

Answer 452

smooth, skeletal, cardiac

Question 453

smooth muscle tissue

Answer 453

not striated, spindle shaped, not branched, involuntary, capable of slow sustained contractions, ex. walls of blood vessels

Question 454

skeletal muscle tissue

Answer 454

striated, cylindrical, not branched, largely voluntary

Question 455

cardiac muscle tissue

Answer 455

striated, cylindrical, branched, involuntary, looks like skeletal, ex. heart, involuntary- don't control rate of heart beat, working all the time, branching propagates contractions

Question 456

skeletal muscles

Answer 456

actin, myosin proteins- sarcomeres- make up muscle fibrils- make up muscle fibres-- make up strap muscle

Question 457

contraction of skeletal muscle

Answer 457

sliding of actin chains on myosin chains | shortened sarcomere length = increased overlap btw myosin and actin = maximum contraction = resting length

Question 458

maximum force of a muscle depends on

Answer 458

being close to resting length more x-sectional area- more potential force velocity- max force at lowest velocity

Question 459

length-tension curve of sarcomere

Answer 459

``` force vs. sarcomere length small sarcomere (hypercontracted)-- increasing up to max. force at resting length--- decreases to maximally extended sarcomere ```

Question 460

speed of muscle contraction

Answer 460

- muscle configuration - proportion of red and white fibre - longer muscle can shorten more than shorter muscle

Question 461

absolute muscle contraction

Answer 461

long muscle- more sarcomeres in series- can shorten more than a fibre with fewer sarcomeres in series

Question 462

configuration of muscle fibres

Answer 462

parallel- strap, fusiform pennate- angled (diff. angle than long axis) bipennate- 2 different directions

Question 463

pennate fibres

Answer 463

typically smaller, can fit into smaller places

Question 464

muscle fibre cross section

Answer 464

anatomical, physiological | some dissipation of force if fibres aren't in long axis direction, still contribute a lot of force

Question 465

anatomical cross-section

Answer 465

across long axis of muscle area of a slice through the widest part of the muscle perpendicular to muscles length similar in parallel and pennate muscle

Question 466

physiological cross-section

Answer 466

different in pennate b/c fibres are not parallel to long axis area of a slice that cuts across all fibres of the muscle different for a parallel and pennate muscle

Question 467

tendons

Answer 467

connect muscle to bone, collagenous, all over the place, fairly elastic, can extend length by ~16%, store elastic energy when stretched which can be used by recoil to move body forward

Question 468

muscle opperation

Answer 468

by contraction not relaxation | 2 opposite actions need to take place (antagonism)

Question 469

foramen magnum

Answer 469

hole at back of skull where spinal cord enters and connects w/ brain

Question 470

acetabulum

Answer 470

hip, concavity, provides part of ball and socket joint w/ femur, head of femur fits into acetabulum

Question 471

arm antagonism

Answer 471

extension: tricep contracts, bicep relaxes flexion: tricep relaxes, bicep contracts biceps and triceps are antagonistic

Question 472

flight muscle antagonism

Answer 472

pectoralis- wing goes down | supracoracoideus- raises wing

Question 473

synergism

Answer 473

perform ~same function in slightly different ways + up to ore complex action together

Question 474

olecranon process

Answer 474

elbow, funny bone, where triceps connect | size depends on importance of tricep (ex. digging animal)

Question 475

different size of antagonistic muscles

Answer 475

gull- downstroke more important | hummingbird- upstroke more important- larger supracoracoideus

Question 476

categories of muscle function

Answer 476

extensor (extend), flexor (flex), adductor/abductor, levator, depressor, rotator, sphincter

Question 477

adductor vs. abductor

Answer 477

adductor- bring body part towards body | abductor- takes body part away from body

Question 478

levator vs. depressor

Answer 478

levator- raises | depressor- lowers

Question 479

rotator

Answer 479

pronation- involves placing palms into the face-down position supination- turns the palms anteriorly or superiorly to the supine (face-up) position

Question 480

sphincter vs. dilator

Answer 480

sphincter- ringlike muscles surrounding and able to contract or close a bodily passage or opening dilator- muscles that widen a body part

Question 481

muscle insertion

Answer 481

typically stable end of muscle, sometimes more proximal part of muscle (closer to body)

Question 482

muscle splitting and fusion

Answer 482

make homologies uncertain

Question 483

axial musculature typically divided into

Answer 483

myomeres, separated by myosepta

Question 484

myomere shapes

Answer 484

amphioxus: v-shaped lamprey: w-shaped shark- bony fish- more complexly folded higher complexity - contraction extends beyond segment, important in locomotion

Question 485

hypaxial and epaxial musculature

Answer 485

hypaxial- lie ventral to horizontal septum of vertebrae | epaxial- lie dorsal to the septum

Question 486

amphibian/lizard motion

Answer 486

use lateral movement of body to extend stride | hard to move with limbs splayed to side

Question 487

tetrapod motion

Answer 487

stride dependent on motion of limbs, musculature more developed around appendices, locomotory apparatus is limbs

Question 488

snake axial musculature

Answer 488

expatiate use for contractions

Question 489

remodelling muscle

Answer 489

hypertrophy, hyperplasia

Question 490

hypertrophy

Answer 490

increasing size of individual muscle fibres

Question 491

hyperplasia

Answer 491

increase in number of fibres, due to splitting of fibres

Question 492

unused muscles

Answer 492

atrophy

Question 493

snake, lizard reproductive modes

Answer 493

oviparity- lay eggs | viviparity- birth to live young with placenta

Question 494

modes of delivery of nutrients to young

Answer 494

placentotrophy- delivery via placenta | lecithotrophy- delivery of nutrients via yolk- most reptiles (even viviparous)

Question 495

process of forming yolk

Answer 495

vittelogenesis

Question 496

income and capital of vittelogenesis

Answer 496

income- nutrients acquired to make yolk capital- using previously stored nutrients snakes more often use capital, female snakes often exhibit anorexia, don't feed while carrying young- especially lose muscle (high protein store)

Question 497

worlds smallest vertebrates

Answer 497

larval fish (<5mm)

Question 498

larval fish characteristics

Answer 498

feed initially from yolk-sac very poor swimmers start with no vertebral column stage of life history where recruitment is determined

Question 499

larval fish mortality

Answer 499

>99.9% - starvation, predation, advective losses (poor swimmers, carried away by currents in unfavourable conditions)

Question 500

interannual variations in fish population abundance

Answer 500

<1915- variations in migration patterns | now know- due to recruitment

Question 501

recruitment

Answer 501

variability in abundance results from interannual variability in # of individuals that survive larval stage

Question 502

fisheries oceanography

Answer 502

branch of biological oceanography that studies the relationship between physical environment and abundance of marine fish

Question 503

interannual variability in abundance reflects interannual variability in recruitment, proposed by

Answer 503

Johann Hjort, 1914

Question 504

marine fish eggs

Answer 504

millions of eggs/ year clear, buoyant, ~1mm diameter preyed upon by zooplankton, larval fish, large fish (cannabalism common)

Question 505

hatch times

Answer 505

days-months | colder water = longer time to hatch

Question 506

yolk- sac

Answer 506

nutrition to developing embryo aids in buoyancy nutrients are function of mothers health

Question 507

larval stage

Answer 507

2 phases: yolk-sac phase, post yolk-sac phase large eyes, visual predators suction feeding

Question 508

yolk-sac phase

Answer 508

rely on yolk-sac, days-weeks (dependent on T), no gills no obvious fins, no proper tail

Question 509

post yolk-sac phase

Answer 509

after yolk used up- exogenous feeding (plankton)

Question 510

larva eat

Answer 510

initially copepod nauplii-- switch to larger zooplankton

Question 511

larval pray size depends on

Answer 511

foraging ability, gape (mouth width)

Question 512

suction feeding

Answer 512

swim up to prey, open mouth quickly, creates vacuum, prey sucked into mouth

Question 513

how far can larval fish see

Answer 513

about another body length away (~1cm) | prey are ~5cm apart, spend most of time foraging

Question 514

reynolds number Re =

Answer 514

UL/v U = swimming speed m/s L = body length m v = viscosity of seawater m^2/s - 10^-6 for 20º seawater

Question 515

Re <100

Answer 515

viscous forces dominate, environment is totally viscous to animal, like human swimming through honey, larval fish in this range

Question 516

Re > 200

Answer 516

intertial forces begin to dominate

Question 517

typical reynolds numbers

Answer 517

``` sperm 0.01 copepod 4 larval fish 25 human 4x10^6 blue whale 3x10^8 ```

Question 518

reciprocal motion

Answer 518

fore-stroke and return are identical- useless in low Re conditions (must be non-reciprocating)

Question 519

larval fish metamorphosis

Answer 519

transition from larval-juvenile begins ~5-10mm juveniles resemble miniature adults mortality declines after metamorphosis

Question 520

changes associated with metamorphosis

Answer 520

cutaneous (skin) breathing - gill breathing develop paired pectoral fins, tail develop adult-like pigment eel-like swimming - beat and glide swimming eye migration (flatfishes) develop vertebrae- body rigidity for swimming

Question 521

ELHS

Answer 521

early life history stages

Question 522

ELHS atlantic cod

Answer 522

eggs 1mm yolksac larva 3mm late larval period 8mm metamorphosed juvenile 10mm

Question 523

c-start escape mechanism

Answer 523

larval fish, entire body curved like an eel or 'C' (no vertebral column)

Question 524

as yolk-sac is absorbed and tail develops

Answer 524

``` swim speed increases response time decreases acceleration increases time to max speed decreases body curvature decreases ```

Question 525

allometric growth in larval fish

Answer 525

head and tail grow relatively faster than rest of body- developing speed capabilities after early development, change in growth rates

Question 526

gills in fish

Answer 526

O2 uptake AFTER larval development (skin before) | ion exchange- Na+ uptake increases faster than O2 uptake

Question 527

skin-gill transition

Answer 527

significantly earlier or Na+ uptake than O2 uptake ~16days vs. ~30? ion exchange more important than respiration in larva?

Question 528

why larval flatfish have eyes on both sides

Answer 528

living in 3D environment, need binocular vision (eggs are buoyant)

Question 529

flatfish eye migration

Answer 529

can be as quick as 2 days, or 120 eyes kept in same plane as body turns adaptation for 2D environment (ocean floor)

Question 530

larval mortality graph

Answer 530

mortality %/day vs. length mm - exponential egg stage is highest percent and sharp slope inflection point of graph is metamorphosis (~10mm)

Question 531

metamorphosis distribution

Answer 531

tight distribution with size, not age- hydrodynamic constraints (Re number) most undergo metamorphosis at 5-10mm

Question 532

why metamorphosis is constrained by size

Answer 532

remodelling can't be done at low Re reciprocal motion doesn't work at low Re gill transition wouldn't work at low Re can't have vertebral column in low Re (need flexibility) fins no use in low Re (would move them back and forth)

Question 533

fundamental units

Answer 533

``` mass, m, kg length, l, meter time, t, second force, F, newton work, W, joule power, P, watt ```

Question 534

F =

Answer 534

m x a

Question 535

W =

Answer 535

F x l

Question 536

P =

Answer 536

W / t

Question 537

types of muscular contraction

Answer 537

isotonic- concentric, eccentric | isometric

Question 538

isotonic contractions

Answer 538

muscle changes length as it contracts- results in movement

Question 539

concentric muscular contraction

Answer 539

force of muscle is adequate for moving a load ex. picking up a stick muscle shortens as it contracts muscle contraction - sarcomeres

Question 540

eccentric muscular contraction

Answer 540

muscle lengthens as it is contraction | ex. big heavy load you can't pick up

Question 541

isometric muscular contraction

Answer 541

muscle doesn't change length as it contracts, constant length from one end to other including tendon connecting it, important in posture and support ex. pushing a boulder you can't move, pull open a door that won't open

Question 542

muscular force vs. speed

Answer 542

trade-off, decreasing, can't maximize both at once, force is max at velocity = 0

Question 543

force and power vs. shortening speed

Answer 543

force drops as velocity increases but power increases at intermediate velocity, can't maximize force and power at the same time

Question 544

classification of muscle fibres

Answer 544

fast-twitch fibres slow-twitch fibres some intermediates

Question 545

fast-twitch fibres

Answer 545

white/blue, Type II; generate high force, rapid fatigue, high glycogen, anaerobic (glycolytic) metabolism- build up lactic acid, moderate blood and oxygen supply, low myoglobin, fast actions

Question 546

slow-twitch fibres

Answer 546

red, Type I; low force, lower power, fatigue-resistant, abundant mitochondria- aerobic (oxidative) metabolism, myoglobin- transport hemoglobin, rich in blood and oxygen, can contract in sustained fashion

Question 547

muscle fibre composition

Answer 547

speed depends on fibre composition, individual muscle can have both types of fibres, actions depend on amount of each type

Question 548

duck breast muscle fibres

Answer 548

dark meat- red fibres- sustained flying

Question 549

chicken breast muscle fibres

Answer 549

white meat- white fibres- can't fly- fast twitch

Question 550

force and power vs. velocity for slow and fast-twitch

Answer 550

slow-twitch- force has lower inflection point, power has lower max (~same as force infl. pt. in fast-twitch), max. velocity is ~1/2 that of fast-twitch fast-twich have more power

Question 551

contraction strength vs. time of muscles

Answer 551

eye: reaches max quick and dissipates quick- mostly fast-twitch deep muscle of leg: reaches max slower and sustains it, declines much slower (mostly slow-twitch) calf muscles: intermediate between the two

Question 552

power performance and endurance

Answer 552

originally thought to not be a trade-off, after correcting for differences- found a negative correlation can't be a specialist and a generalist at the same time

Question 553

endurance, sprint speed, lizards

Answer 553

high endurance = low sprint speed high spring speed in ground dwelling- escape behaviour when entering open habitats, not seen in all lizards because its a trade-off

Question 554

%red muscle in ocean species

Answer 554

large variations, constant swimmers = high proportion; benthic living = low proportion

Question 555

position of red muscle, fish

Answer 555

usually superficial, internalized in tuna

Question 556

power vs. tail-beat frequency, fish swimming

Answer 556

red muscle much lower in graph, much less powerful- slow, medium locomotion; white muscle kicks in and provides the power and fast locomotion

Question 557

tuna vs. billfish

Answer 557

tuna: internalized red muscle, body remains stiff, caudal peduncle and tail are point of flexion billfish: superficial red muscle, most of body involved in propagation of propulsion

Question 558

senescence

Answer 558

muscular atrophy occurring with age, even if used; gradual deterioration of function

Question 559

sarcopenia

Answer 559

degenerative loss of skeletal muscle mass (0.5–1% loss per year after the age of 50), quality, and strength associated with aging

Question 560

whats going on with senescence

Answer 560

loss of fast-twitch fibres shifting from fast-slow twitch phenotype with age, slowing of muscle contractile properties- reduces cost of locomotion in elderly

Question 561

rattlesnake shaker muscles- rapid movement sustained for long periods of time

Answer 561

loaded with mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum- supply Ca for nervous action very economical- lowest cost per twitch intermediate type of muscle generates heat (one of the costs?)

Question 562

levers

Answer 562

``` class 1, 2, 3 fulcrum between in-force and load in-force generated by muscular contraction lever-bone fulcrum- typically a joint speed/force depend on distances ```

Question 563

class 1

Answer 563

out down, fulcrum, in up | ex. pushing down on toe, ankle, heel moving up

Question 564

class 2

Answer 564

fulcrum, out up, in up | ex. pivot toe, leg goes up up, lift heal up

Question 565

class 3

Answer 565

fulcrum, in up, out up | ex. pivot heel, push on leg, toe goes down

Question 566

in-lever

Answer 566

l_i, length

Question 567

out-lever

Answer 567

l_o

Question 568

in-force

Answer 568

F_i

Question 569

out-force

Answer 569

F_o, load

Question 570

when in-force balances load

Answer 570

F_i * I_i = F_o * I_o

Question 571

in-force moves load

Answer 571

F_i * I_i > F_o * I_o

Question 572

load moves lever against in-force

Answer 572

F_i * I_i < F_o * I_o

Question 573

steady state (levers)

Answer 573

F_o = F_i (I_i / I_o) | to increase F_o---- increase F_i, or I_i / I_o

Question 574

digger vs. runner arm leaver

Answer 574

runner: short I_i, ratio is fairly low, not very big mechanical advantage; mechanical advantage tells a lot about function

Question 575

to increase velocity of out-lever

Answer 575

decrease I_i / I_o | V_o * I_i = V_i * I_o

Question 576

gear ratio

Answer 576

GR = I_o / I_i

Question 577

low GR

Answer 577

power

Question 578

high GR

Answer 578

speed (and stride in limbs)

Question 579

direction of force of muscle

Answer 579

depends on orientation arm at right angle- force directed along length of arm arm open more than 90º- force 'out' from 'elbow pit'

Question 580

plantigrade

Answer 580

whole foot on ground- small metatarsals

Question 581

digitigrade

Answer 581

walk on toes- med. metatarsals

Question 582

unguligrade

Answer 582

walk on tips of toes- large metatarsals

Question 583

orientation, speed of limb

Answer 583

effects gearing, speed

Question 584

bear limb gears

Answer 584

high gear gluteal group- gluteus maximus, gluteus medius low gear femoral group- adductor femoris high AND low gear muscles used to extend femur can rotate limb very rapidly with little power, rapid acting muscles, steady speeds femoris- low gear for rapid acceleration

Question 585

MA

Answer 585

mechanical advantage

Question 586

Redeye Piranha

Answer 586

large adductor muscle, huge tendon, 3rd class lever, Li/Lo amplifies AM force transmission from jaw tip to posterior teeth- more powerful force at back of mouth

Question 587

streptostyly in lizards, lever

Answer 587

2 different size in-levers and out-levers | upper articulation = longer in-lever = more forceful bite

Question 588

cuticle

Answer 588

acellular outer mucus layer in fish, protective substance including toxins and antimicrobial compounds; limited keratinization

Question 589

diversity of feeding types in fish

Answer 589

detritivores, planktivores, herbivores, carnivores, molluscivores, insectivores, piscivores, omnivores, parasites

Question 590

evolution of feeding in fish

Answer 590

parasitize (jawless fish)-- suction, biting (since jaw evolution, in most fish)

Question 591

new mechanisms with bony fish

Answer 591

premaxilla protrusion, pharyngeal jaws, mechanical diversity, muscle duplication

Question 592

important mouth functions

Answer 592

food capture- feet, mouth, teeth, tongue oral transport- food handling in mouth, ingestion, mastication, swallowing, teeth, tongue, cranial kinesis, salivary glands

Question 593

salivary glands

Answer 593

sublingual gland, mandibular gland, parotid gland, orbital gland; lubricate foods and start digestion

Question 594

mobility of upper jaw

Answer 594

has evolved twice, led to increased processing capabilities, can tackle larger prey because they can break it into pieces as they kill it

Question 595

grass carp pharyngeal jaws

Answer 595

no teeth in jaws, long serrated teeth in pharyngeal jaw- pharyngeal teeth; interact with basioccipital pad to grind down material making it more digestible

Question 596

moray eel pharyngeal jaws

Answer 596

are brought forward when it opens its mouth and becomes an important prey capture mechanism- unable to generate pressure differences for suction feeding, massive adductor muscles propel pharyngeal teeth

Question 597

feeding in water

Answer 597

prey is generally same density as water- approaching it pushes it away- most open mouth and oral cavity wide to create negative pressure- suck in prey and water

Question 598

box turtle feeding

Answer 598

capable of feeding on land and in water (most turtle only in water), hyoid apparatus depresses more in feeding in water than in land

Question 599

ways to swallow food whole

Answer 599

suction feeding, raptorial pharyngeal jaws, pterygoid walk, inertial feeding

Question 600

suction feeding

Answer 600

teleosts, aquatic amphibians, aquatic turtles

Question 601

raptorial pharyngeal jaws

Answer 601

moray eels

Question 602

pterygoid walk

Answer 602

most snakes, move jaws independently over prey and pull it in

Question 603

inertial feeding

Answer 603

birds, lizards, like a pelican

Question 604

mechanical digestion

Answer 604

breaking food down into pieces

Question 605

chemical digestion

Answer 605

in stomach

Question 606

evolution of mammal chewing

Answer 606

1. jaw joint, shapes of jaws changed so jaws be brought together to breakdown food unilaterally (one side of jaw at a time) 2. change in jaw joint and adductor muscles- transverse movements (teeth can be moved side to side against each other) 3. tribosphenic molars develop w/ complex surfaces, cusps that fit together dynamically during occlusion (can grind up food)

Question 607

occlusion

Answer 607

manner in which the upper and lower teeth come together when the mouth is closed

Question 608

tribosphenic chewing

Answer 608

unique to mammals, parallel to some dinos., puncture crushing- vertical bite first, then more side to side like horse/cow

Question 609

increase lever arm of jaw muscles acting on jaw joint to increase chewing fores

Answer 609

moving muscle insertions further out on lower jaw moving muscle insertions higher onto coronoid process moving the position of the jaw joint to increase lever arm

Question 610

arcilineal jaw movement

Answer 610

jaw closes, up and down, no fancy movement

Question 611

propalineal movement

Answer 611

tuatara, jaws move against each other longitudinally

Question 612

bird chewing

Answer 612

chew with guts not mouth, no teeth, beaks only for capture, can move both jaws, unique to raise upper jaw

Question 613

gizzard

Answer 613

ventriculus- modified stomach, very muscular, horny sheet inside of it, keratinous sheet grinds up food

Question 614

stomach stones in birds, to grind up food

Answer 614

gastroliths (typically rough rocks)

Question 615

gizzard compensating for teeth loss

Answer 615

initially thought this, but these traits are seen together in some dinosaurs; probably aided reduction of head mass for flight

Question 616

alimentary tract

Answer 616

tubular passage extending from the mouth to the anus, through which food is passed and digested

Question 617

GI tract

Answer 617

gastrointestinal; esophagus, stomach, intestine; organ system responsible for consuming and digesting food, absorbing nutrients, expelling waste

Question 618

sphincter GI tract

Answer 618

esophageal sphincter before stomach, gastric sphincter after stomach

Question 619

gut regions

Answer 619

fore/mid/hind

Question 620

cecum

Answer 620

beginning of large intestine; processing bacterial digestion of plant material, present in many verts.

Question 621

parts of small intestine

Answer 621

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

Question 622

parts of large intestine

Answer 622

cecum, colon, rectum, anus

Question 623

changes in GI tract structure

Answer 623

straight- agnathan spiral valve- chondrichthian more and more complicated up to mammals increasing surface area to improve digestion

Question 624

the more plant material consumed

Answer 624

the longer the gut, difficulty with which plant material is digested increasingly long and coiled intestines: carnivore- omnivore- hebivore

Question 625

rumination

Answer 625

complex stomach with multiple chambers; regurgitate partially digested food from stomach (Cud), chew it again; Rumination- rechewing the cud, facilitates proper breakdown of cellulose rich plant matter

Question 626

foregut

Answer 626

stomach, primary digestion, HCL

Question 627

midgut

Answer 627

intestine, pancreas, liver; digestion, absorption, peptidases, amylases, etc.,

Question 628

hindgut

Answer 628

hindgut chamber, rectum; absorption, defecation, fermentation

Question 629

bird stomach(s)

Answer 629

proventriculus- secretes acids/enzymes | gizzard- mechanical breakdown

Question 630

crop

Answer 630

dilation of esophagus that stores and softens food

Question 631

gut lining

Answer 631

villi, which are lined with microvilli | enormously increase surface area

Question 632

labile

Answer 632

to change

Question 633

gut is labile

Answer 633

lots remodelling, increases in size with feeding, including increasing size of villi, increase seen in multiple organs (stomach, lungs, heart, pancreas, liver, kidneys, intestinal mucosa)

Question 634

Hirschsprung's Disease

Answer 634

Megacolon; musculature in gut stops working, faces are not moved properly, removed surgically

Question 635

adaptive constipation

Answer 635

typical in large bodied vipers; may not deficit in 400days, provide balance when animal strikes, rapid strikes lunge it forward, retain feces more than other species that don't lunge

Question 636

atavism

Answer 636

resemblance to remote ancestors rather than to parents; reversion to an earlier type; 'one-off' developmental abnormalities, 'throwbacks'; evolutionary reversals; problems for phylogenetic analysis

Question 637

snake atavism

Answer 637

occasionally find a snake with Diddy biddy hind limb buds

Question 638

human atavism

Answer 638

some babies born with tails | human coronary circulation similar to reptiles

Question 639

Dollo's law

Answer 639

biologist who argued that evolution can't run backwards, genes/developmental pathways released from selective pressure will become nonfunctional

Question 640

best example of evolution in reverse

Answer 640

axolotl- paedomorphosis lost, metamorphosis regained

Question 641

viviparity in squamates, atavism

Answer 641

viviparity has evolved multiple times, most transitions are o-v, but in some cases v-o; if oviparity is ancestral (as is thought) then this represents a requisition

Question 642

spontaneous atavisms

Answer 642

rare atavistic anomalies in individual specimens

Question 643

phylogenetic character reversals

Answer 643

expressed in all members of a give clade

Question 644

taxic atavisms

Answer 644

phylogenetic character reversals- important for evolution, mechanism for generating morphological variation within clades

Question 645

atavisms and convergent evolution

Answer 645

can easily be confused if trees are equally parsimonious

Question 646

double decay BS

Answer 646

double decay branch support

Question 647

crocodilian atavism vs. convergence

Answer 647

similar long skinny snout- long thought to be convergent molecular data shows sister species- snout derived- atavistic; skull table, braincase, jaws, hyoid, osteoderms, ribs, vertebrae, forelimbs, pelvis- reversals to fossil/outgroup traits

Question 648

the case of the midwife toad

Answer 648

proteus with eyes restored induced color adaptations by rearing on coloured soil nuptial pads developed by forced water mating

Question 649

nuptial pads

Answer 649

seasonal hypertrophy in skin of male frogs in water living species, hormonally controlled, help male keep grip on female for mating in water

Question 650

hypertrophy

Answer 650

increase in the volume of an organ or tissue due to the enlargement of its component cells

Question 651

hyperplasia

Answer 651

cells remain approximately the same size but increase in number

Question 652

venom glands

Answer 652

modified salivary glands, venom kills prey, sometimes begins digestion

Question 653

relative gizzard sizes

Answer 653

high fibre diet (hard to digest)- gizzard increases in size low fibre- gizzard decreases in size gizzard varies between and within species, gut readily remodelled

Question 654

respiratory gas exchange

Answer 654

oxygen gain from fluid medium, CO2 dumped into fluid medium

Question 655

ventilation

Answer 655

movement of medium (water/air) either due to current or muscular action on a part of the animal, especially in relation to the gas exchange surface

Question 656

breathing

Answer 656

skeletoventrical movements that cause ventillation near the gas exchange surface

Question 657

respiratory gas exchange organs

Answer 657

gills, lungs, skin

Question 658

skin for gas exchange

Answer 658

majorly amphibians but to some degree in all animals, even a little bit in humans

Question 659

plethodontid salamanders

Answer 659

loss of lungs loss of larval stage consequences in tongue projection

Question 660

plethodont lung loss

Answer 660

synapomorphy, ancestral character, anti bouyancy mechanism, changes in breathing- lose need for hyoid apparatus (movements of mouth floor)

Question 661

ancestral lung state

Answer 661

salamanders lived in fast flowing streams- high O2 | not the case now, lung loss is not a function of O2

Question 662

plethodont, loss of larval stage

Answer 662

direct development, in some species, no requirement of hyoid for suction feeding

Question 663

plethodont tongue projection

Answer 663

ballistic tongue projection; hyoid apparatus projected out of mouth (tongue skeleton), retracted by muscles all the way back to hip; only possible b/c hyoid not needed for buccal pumping

Question 664

O2 concentrations

Answer 664

fresh water 6.6 mL/L at 20ºC Air 209 mL/L increases with declining temperature and increasing turbulance

Question 665

increasing skins respiratory exchange

Answer 665

loose, baggy skin, increased SA (hellbender salamander, lake Titicaca frog), capilli growth- highly vascularized gas exchange surface (male hairy frog)

Question 666

larval salamander gas exchange organs

Answer 666

skin, lungs, gills

Question 667

bony fish gas exchange organs

Answer 667

lungs very basal, secondarily lost in many groups, modified into swim bladders in many species- triple exaltation (breathing, buoyancy, sound?)

Question 668

gills

Answer 668

main aquatic gas exchange surface, fish, amphibians | pharyngeal arch- gill arch- skeletal support for the gill

Question 669

on each gill arch (gas exchange)

Answer 669

primary lamelli, covered in secondary lamelli- these are the actual gas exchange surface

Question 670

counter current exchange system, gills

Answer 670

water flows across secondary lamella on gill arch, they pick up oxygen from water, and carry the oxygen to body tissues in the opposite direction of water flow

Question 671

lamprey water flow

Answer 671

nonfeeding: through mouth-- pharynx-- gill arches-- out feeding: in sides of gill arches and back out, doesn't enter body cavity, mouth, or pharynx

Question 672

spiracle

Answer 672

opening in sharks where water enters and can be forces out gill slits

Question 673

operculum

Answer 673

bony flap covering gills, can be closed

Question 674

teleost fish respiratory (gills)

Answer 674

take in water in buccal cavity with operculum closed-- expand opercular cavity, pressure drops (same as feeding)-- force water through opercular cavity-- opercular valve open-- water out

Question 675

salamander gill

Answer 675

remain external, well developed

Question 676

frog spiracle

Answer 676

dictates direction of water flow through gills (tadpole), types 1,2,3,4

Question 677

variation in gill sizes

Answer 677

large gills- still ponds small gills- fast flowing mountain stream bigger fin on tail- pond larger gas exchange surfaces

Question 678

lungs

Answer 678

major gas exchange surface in air | gills have too many fine surfaces, would not be efficient in air

Question 679

evolution of aspiration breathing in tetrapods

Answer 679

1. aquatic buccal pump- operated by hyoid apparatus 3. two-stroke buccal pump- 2 movements of mouth for each breath, sole dependence on buccal pump 4. exhalaion powered by hypaxial musculature 5. costal aspiration (loss of buccal pump, fully associated with musculature)

Question 680

aspiration

Answer 680

bringing in air via musculoskeletal system- sucking in air

Question 681

2-stroke buccal pump

Answer 681

drops floor of mouth to open mouth cavity (using buccal pump)-- then glottic opens-- air is forced out past air that has just been taken in-- floor of mouth raised-- air forced past lungs

Question 682

frog/amphibian lung breathing

Answer 682

breathe through nose-- glottis closed-- open nostril-- lower floor of mouth-- negative pressure-- air enters oral cavity-- open epiglottis-- force air out nostril (exhale) by elastic recoiling of lung-- close nostril-- raise floor of mouth (second stroke)-- force air into lung- set up elastic recoil

Question 683

epiglottis

Answer 683

a thin, valvelike, cartilaginous structure that covers the glottis during swallowing, preventing the entrance of food and drink into the larynx

Question 684

glottis

Answer 684

opening between the vocal cords at the upper part of the larynx

Question 685

in between breathes, frogs

Answer 685

raise and lower floor- get rid of stale air in mouth

Question 686

frog courtship noises

Answer 686

with nostrils closed- force air into vocal sacs rapidly- accoustic radiator- shift air back and forth between lungs and vocal sacs very rapidly

Question 687

sprawling posture and breathing

Answer 687

body musculature needed for locomotion, breathing? | volume moved out of lungs decreases rapidly with speed, can't run fast for long- can't breathe- trade-off

Question 688

minute ventilation

Answer 688

total air inhaled and exhaled in a minute

Question 689

axial constraint

Answer 689

breathe and move with same musculature

Question 690

gular pump

Answer 690

accessory breathing apparatus- independent of body musculature so they can move air into lungs while running

Question 691

oropharyngeal pump used for lung inflation in air-breathing fishes and amphibians

Answer 691

buccal pump

Question 692

pharyngeal pump used as accessory lung inflation mechanism in lizards and tuataras

Answer 692

gular pump

Question 693

non-ventilatory expansion/compression of buccal cavity, preformed with mouth closed and usually serving as olfactory function

Answer 693

buccal oscillation

Question 694

non-ventialtory expansion/compression of buccal cavity, with mouth open, serving as thermoregulatory function

Answer 694

gular flutter (related to panting)

Question 695

Ichthyostega

Answer 695

had a rib cage, perhaps breathing close to amniotes

Question 696

elastic recoil

Answer 696

exhalation

Question 697

recoil aspiration

Answer 697

lung wall musculature contracts-- pressure drops-- lungs deflate, air pushed out-- integument drawn inward to compensate for volume change--- deformation stores elastic energy - negative pressure

Question 698

tetrapod respiratory system

Answer 698

tidal or unidirectional dead space vocalizations

Question 699

tidal respiration

Answer 699

bidirectional, humans

Question 700

unidirectional

Answer 700

birds, more efficient O2 extraction

Question 701

dead space

Answer 701

volume of air inhaled that does not take part in gas exchange, because it (1) remains in the conducting airways, (2) reaches alveoli not perfused

Question 702

perfused

Answer 702

supply (an organ, tissue, or body) with a fluid, typically blood, by circulating it through blood vessels

Question 703

benefits of dead space

Answer 703

CO2 retained, make buffered blood; Inspired air brought to T_b, increasing affinity of hemoglobin for O2, improving uptake; Particulate matter trapped on mucus, allowing removal; Inspired air is humidified, improving quality of airway mucus

Question 704

vocalization

Answer 704

vocal chords- in larynx, vibrate when air rushes past syrinx- vocal organ of birds; at the base of trachea, produces sounds w/o vocal cords, sound is produced by membrane vibrations when air flows through

Question 705

types of lung

Answer 705

faveolar lung | alveolar lung

Question 706

faveloar lung

Answer 706

septate, reptiles, modified in birds, less compartmentalized, no alveoli, pockets open from central chamber

Question 707

alveolar lung

Answer 707

mammals, lots of alveoli pickets

Question 708

compliance

Answer 708

ability for the lung to be inflated

Question 709

parenchyma

Answer 709

gas exchange tissue

Question 710

structural type vs. praenchyma

Answer 710

uni-cameral, multi-cameral, highly specialized vs. homogeneous, heterogeneous

Question 711

highly specialized, homogeneous

Answer 711

large surface area, low compliance, mammal

Question 712

highly specialized, heterogeneous

Answer 712

large surface area, high compliance, dinosaurs, birds

Question 713

uni-cameral, homo-heterogeneous

Answer 713

amphibians, reptiles, large surface area, low compliance unless body elongated

Question 714

amphibian lungs

Answer 714

single chambered, only complement gills and skin

Question 715

amniote lungs

Answer 715

multichambered shared by all amniotes, principle gas exchange site, key to conquering land

Question 716

Archosaurs

Answer 716

crocodiles, birds

Question 717

Lepidosaurs

Answer 717

lizard, snakes, tuatara

Question 718

lepidosaur lungs

Answer 718

couldn't maintain multi chambered heart due to miniaturization, multichamberedness is still ontogenetically visible

Question 719

axial bending, lizard

Answer 719

bending axis btw right/left lobes of lungs- bending to one side- one lobe reduces in volume, the other expands, air may be pumped back and forth btw, but little is moved in and out of the animal

Question 720

axial bending, dog

Answer 720

bending axis is dorsal to thoracic cavity, sagittal ending changes thoracic volume- actively pumps air in and out of lungs for each locator cycle

Question 721

sagittal plane

Answer 721

vertical plane which passes from anterior to posterior, dividing the body into right and left halves

Question 722

7 important, independent, character developments in breathing

Answer 722

``` diaphragmatic muscles large transverse process bipedal locomotion upright posture bounding lateral stability of vertebral column endothermy ```

Question 723

large transverse process

Answer 723

trunk vertebrae providing attachment sites fro axial muscles, independent of ribs; functional separation btw breathing and locomotion; characteristically large in Archosaurs

Question 724

costal aspiration, reptiles

Answer 724

inhalation- ribs move forward and out, thorax expands, air sucked in exhalation- ribs move backward and in, thorax compresses

Question 725

craniolateral movement of ribs

Answer 725

forward and out

Question 726

turtle breathing

Answer 726

use muscles inhalation: abdominal oblique, serratus exhalation: transverse abdominus, pectoralis

Question 727

alligator breathing

Answer 727

craniolateral movement of ribs, have diaphragm, post hepatic septum behind liver, transversals

Question 728

posthepatic septum

Answer 728

when pulled back, helps with breathing- 'hepatic piston', 'pelvic aspiration', muscles attached to pelvis

Question 729

transversals

Answer 729

move liver forward- capable of breathing and walking and galloping

Question 730

bird respiratory

Answer 730

highly modified reptilian lungs, air sacs do not exchange gases, unidirectional lungs, extract 30-35% of O2 from air, adaptation for flight, sternum moves down for inspiration; abdominal/thoracic cavities not divided (no diaphragm)

Question 731

evolution of bird respiratory system

Answer 731

thought to be unique, findings of unidirectional flow in iguana- new understandings

Question 732

mammals respiratory system

Answer 732

simple system, craniolateral movement, diaphragm, elastic recoil

Question 733

mammal respiratory passage

Answer 733

mouth/nares-- buccal cavity/nasal cavity-- trachea-- bronchi-- bronchiole-- alveoli-- diaphragm

Question 734

circulatory system involves

Answer 734

``` blood closed circulatory system (vertebrates) muscular heart arteries, veins, capillary beds portal veins ```

Question 735

veins/arteries

Answer 735

veins- to lungs | arteries- from lungs

Question 736

portal vein

Answer 736

one organ to another

Question 737

simplified circulation pathway

Answer 737

aorta-- arteries-- arterioles-- capillaries-- venules-- veins-- vena cava

Question 738

heart evolution

Answer 738

single ventricle, single aortic opening (amphibian)-- single ventricle, two aortic openings (reptile)-- fully divided heart (croc)

Question 739

amphibian heart

Answer 739

oxy and deoxy blood mix in ventricle

Question 740

basic heart structures

Answer 740

left: superioir vena cava, sinoatrial node, right atrium, inferior vena cava, tricuspid valave, right ventricle right: left atrium, left pulmonary veins, bicuspid valve, left ventricle middle: atrioventricular node, ventricular septum

Question 741

single circulation

Answer 741

1V, 1A, gills, tissues, back to heart; fish, O2 picked up from gills, carried to tissue, heart doesn't receive very oxygenated blood- possible evolutionary development of lungs

Question 742

double circulation in

Answer 742

archosaurs, mammals, lungfish, amphibians

Question 743

double circulation, single ventricle, atrium

Answer 743

heart-- gills-- air breathing organ AND tissues-- back to heart from both; partly oxygenated blood coming in to lung- helps oxygenate heart; not completely oxygenated blood delivered to tissues

Question 744

double and partially divided circulation, lungfish

Answer 744

intermediate stage; 2A, 1V-- gills AND air breathing organ-- from gills-- tissues-- back to heart; tissues receive more oxygen than non divided system

Question 745

double and partially divided circulation, amphibians, reptiles

Answer 745

1V, 2A in middle- out right side to skin (then tissues) AND tissues-- then back to heart; out left side to lung and back to heart; fully oxygenated blood going to tissues and heart

Question 746

double completely divided circulation, mammals, archosaurs

Answer 746

2V, 2A: out RV-- lung-- RA-- LV-- tissues-- RA

Question 747

croc divided circulation

Answer 747

foramen of panizza- carries blood from LV (oxygenated) to RV to supply heart with oxygen

Question 748

pulmonary

Answer 748

of, relating to, affecting, or occurring in the lungs; carried on by the lungs

Question 749

systemic

Answer 749

part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart

Question 750

coronary

Answer 750

pertaining to the arteries that supply the heart tissues and originate in the root of the aorta

Question 751

aorta

Answer 751

the main trunk of the arterial system, conveying blood from the left ventricle of the heart to all of the body except the lungs

Question 752

vena cava

Answer 752

superioir-carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the heart's right atrium inferioir- carries deoxygenated blood from the lower half of the body into the right atrium of the heart

Question 753

coronary support

Answer 753

Lamnidae: moderate- partially endothermic Osteichthyes, Tetrapods: slight, mostly spongey Croc, bird, mammals: extensive, no spongey (compact myocardia)

Question 754

5 chamber heart

Answer 754

non-croc reptiles- ventricle 'partially divided', some division of blood but potential for mixing; blood flow can be shunted past lung to avoid build up of CO2 in lungs (diving); R-L and L-R shunts

Question 755

shunt

Answer 755

hole or a small passage which moves, or allows movement of, fluid from one part of the body to another

Question 756

croc shunt

Answer 756

from right atrium to foramen of panizza (R-L shunt)

Question 757

euthermy

Answer 757

true endothermy, birds and mammals (Eutherms)

Question 758

ectotherm

Answer 758

mainly derive body heat from external sources- radiation, conduction from the ground

Question 759

endotherm

Answer 759

mainly derive heat metabolically, also from external environment

Question 760

poikilothermy

Answer 760

T_b is variable (typically ectotherms)

Question 761

homeothermy

Answer 761

single/stable T_b (typically endotherms)

Question 762

temporal heterothermy

Answer 762

not perfectly constant homeothermy, seen in endotherms

Question 763

variation in thermal physiology of vertebrates

Answer 763

large variation, endo/ecto and poiko/homeo grid shows organisms in all quadrants; though only mole rats are poikilo endotherms

Question 764

animals in a room with homogenous T that is gradually increased

Answer 764

mammal- defend T_b against a gradient, maintains Tb independent of environment snake- basically matches room T note- real world is not thermally homogenous

Question 765

real world temperature variations

Answer 765

snake can take advantage of microhabitats to maintain a relatively stable Tb ex. shade on a hot day, on a cold day, must be a thermoconformer

Question 766

ectotherms capable of

Answer 766

rapid excursion of Tb- maintain ~30º, plunge into water- drop to ~10º Tb; can't maintain optimal T during feeding

Question 767

ectotherm performance curve

Answer 767

relative performance vs. Tb; performance increases with Tb up to a point; performance curves reach optimum around same point for all functions; Tb is tightly spread around optimum T

Question 768

temperature ranges tolerable

Answer 768

ectotherms: -10 - 50º | active endotherm: ~30-45º

Question 769

land vs aquatic ectotherms

Answer 769

land: ~-10 - 40º aquatic: 5-45º

Question 770

thermal conductivity, 25ºC

Answer 770

water: 0.58 W/m K air: 0.024 W/m K soil w/ organics: 0.15-2 water is 3333X air, harder for aquatic animals to reach high Tb, less steep T gradients in water- homogenized

Question 771

BMR

Answer 771

basal metabolic rate | minimal rate of energy expenditure per unit time by warm-blooded animals at rest

Question 772

metabolic rates and turpor

Answer 772

resting (turpor)- large drop in MR, lower Tb | resting MR < active MR, common in small birds/mammals

Question 773

daily temporal heterothermy

Answer 773

dunnart (marsupial) drops MR below BMR and Tb decreases overnight

Question 774

seasonal temporal heterothermy

Answer 774

ground squirrel; series of torpor events interrupted by arousal events- raise Tb to normal levels

Question 775

regional heterothermy

Answer 775

bearded dragon lizard, under thermal stress exhibits panting behaviour to cool down (evaporation from moist inner mouth)

Question 776

oral vs. cloacal T in snakes

Answer 776

concealed: same T exposed: head ~10º warmer- preferentially heat head first differential body part heating

Question 777

california ground squirrel

Answer 777

found to have dramatic difference in T in different body parts- can elevate T of tail by allowing more blood to tail- only in response to rattlesnakes (b/c rattlesnakes have heat sensing organs)- may intimidate the snakes

Question 778

emperor penguin regional heterothermy

Answer 778

decrease temperature of wings via wing vein, and feet, to conserve core Tb during diving

Question 779

metabolic rate vs. body size

Answer 779

vastly different in endotherm and ectotherm ectotherms much much lower and nearly flat line with body body mass changes endotherms- higher metabolism for smaller animals metabolism is CAL/GH

Question 780

resting metabolic rate

Answer 780

SMR in ectotherms BMR in endotherms measured in thermoneutral zone (balancing gains and losses)

Question 781

MAMR

Answer 781

maximum aerobic metabolic rate- higher metabolic rates when active

Question 782

core temperature, heat production vs. air temperature, ectotherm

Answer 782

ectotherm- Tb increases with increases air T heat production is minimal, increases w/ increasing T core T is a passive function of air T

Question 783

core temperature, heat production vs. air temperature, endotherm

Answer 783

at ~38ºC heat production is 3-4X larger than endotherm decreasing air T = increasing heat production internal T is largely independent of air T

Question 784

vertebrate ectotherms

Answer 784

fishes, amphibians, reptiles; environment heat source, usually variable Tb, behavioural thermoreg, narrow range of ambient conditions allowing thermoreg, lower energy needs- prolonged exposure to no food, O2, larger ability to take advantage of dormancy, small sizes, long slender shapes

Question 785

vertebrate endotherms

Answer 785

dinosaurs(?), birds, mammals, some fishes metabolic heat source, relatively constant Tb, mainly physiological thermoreg, wide range of ambient conditions allowing thermoreg, can live in cold places, activity in cold, enhanced aerobic scope for activity

Question 786

endothermic ectotherms

Answer 786

leatherback: largest turtle in world, globular shape, big and round, thermal inertia, can go up to Arctic circle, maintains T 8-10º, muscular activity (swimming) generate heat which is maintained, also reduce circulations to flippers

Question 787

thermal inertia

Answer 787

maintain heat because of large size and low SA:V

Question 788

regional endothermy

Answer 788

green turtle- active tissues ~7º warmer than water T, heat retained due to large body size and insulation of shell, increases swimming ability, facilitate long distance migration

Question 789

brooding python

Answer 789

maintain constant T against T gradient- jacks up metabolic T by shivering, musculature activity (only during brooding)- endothermic characteristic

Question 790

tunas generate heat

Answer 790

via red muscle; retain via counter current heat exchangers in brain, viscera, muscles

Question 791

bullfish/butterfly mackerel

Answer 791

thermogenic organ (modified extra ocular muscle fibres, different muscles, convergence)

Question 792

lamnid sharks

Answer 792

heat generated by slow-twitch myotomal muscle- transferred to cranial area via unique veins; contraction of extra ocular muscle also generates heat

Question 793

extraocular muscle

Answer 793

six muscles that control movement of the eye. and one muscle that controls eyelid elevation

Question 794

niche expansion hypothesis

Answer 794

heating of part of body- especially brain facilitates expansion in cold waters- deep diving

Question 795

body temperature vs. environment

Answer 795

or Tb1 vs. Tb2 (different body parts) | if slope ≠ 1 some type of thermoregulation is occurring

Question 796

lamnid shark and tuna convergence

Answer 796

hydrodynamic body form, thunniform locomotion, negatively buoyant, dive to cold depths, swim constantly with partly open mouth, similar red muscle distribution, similar tendon arrangement, endothermy (26º core), counter-current heat exchange systems; all this and not closely related

Question 797

thunniform swimming

Answer 797

confined primarily to the caudal fin, often fin is crescent-shaped (lunate) like a small wing and connected to the body by only a thin section called the caudal peduncle

Question 798

counter current exchange systems

Answer 798

retain generated heat

Question 799

body temp vs. air temp graph

Answer 799

different isotherms for different populations, body adjusted to different mean temperature; homeothermic only up to certain point (30ºC in shrikes) then heterothermic

Question 800

frequency and duration of turpor are a function of

Answer 800

feeding rate, consistant w/ idea that torpor is a body saving mechanism; negative correlation- lower frequency of torpor with high feeding rate, maintain higher Tb when well fed

Question 801

chick Tb

Answer 801

heterothermic when born; behaviour initiated by certain minimum T's: biting, crawling 5-10º, shivering ~15º, wing flapping ~20º, flight ~30º

Question 802

endothermic performance curve

Answer 802

%Performance vs. Tb; can only show a narrow range of temperatures (endotherms don't have large range of Tb) ex. chick burst running speed- increasing, but only have data points for 30-45º

Question 803

muscle performance curve (endotherms)

Answer 803

muscles have larger range of T (T_m), max performance is at the highest T, peak T, peak performance- looks more like a 'traditional' performance curve; can even plot muscle performance of endo/ectotherms together on one

Question 804

why be adapted to narrow range of T?

Answer 804

``` specialists- higher peak performance than a way wider performance curve seen in a generalist 2 enzymes (1 high T acclimated, the other cold) expensive to maintain both at once, typically don't find both forms in one animal at one time ```

Question 805

why be adapted to higher temperature range?

Answer 805

muscle movements create heat, body must be able to deal with high temperatures

Question 806

energy requirement vs. ambient temperature

Answer 806

two decreasing slopes, lower one - low conductance, higher one = high conductance; both converge at same T = Tb; a specific energy requirement will cross low conductance line at lower T than the high conductance line; balance heat loss?

Question 807

factors affecting conductance of a body

Answer 807

nature of surrounding fluid size shape nature of body surface

Question 808

nature of surrounding fluid (conductance)

Answer 808

water conductance > air | tougher to be an endotherm in water

Question 809

size affects on conductance

Answer 809

SA:V | bigger animals lose heat less slowly

Question 810

effects of shape on conductance

Answer 810

SA:V | rounder animals maintain heat better

Question 811

nature of body surface, conductance

Answer 811

mammals- air, feathers, trap air btw body and surface of coat, which is a good insulator

Question 812

insulating value of fur

Answer 812

insulating values shift with season, especially in larger mammals; having fur is not adequate to initiate endothermy- important but need the other equipment too (internal)

Question 813

insulation value vs. fur thickness

Answer 813

positive correlation low end- squirrels high end- wolf, polar bear

Question 814

changing conductance

Answer 814

if ambient temperature drops- switch from high to low conductance to conserve energy; can be done by changing erection of hairs (in fur)

Question 815

generating metabolic heat

Answer 815

muscular contraction- physical activity, shivering non-shivering thermogenesis metabolism of viscera

Question 816

non-shivering thermogenesis

Answer 816

using brown-adipose tissue, particularly well developed in young mammals

Question 817

metabolism of viscera

Answer 817

metabolism of internal organs; 70% of heat production in mammals at rest is generated by internal organs; large internal organs in mammals

Question 818

thermalneutral zone

Answer 818

zone of ambient T's an animal can maintain Tb with minimal energy, complicated by conductance, BMR, and critical T's; T_lc - T_uc

Question 819

critical temperatures

Answer 819

T_lc lower critical- 4 possible locations: High/low BMR and high/low conductance- tightest interval is low BMR and high conductance, then high BMR high conduct., low BMR low conduct., high BMR low conduct. high BMR, low conduct., gives widest interval on Tb but costs more E

Question 820

T_lc increased by

Answer 820

higher Tb higher conductance lower BMR

Question 821

TMR

Answer 821

torpid metabolic rate

Question 822

energy expenditure vs. ambient temperature with torpor conductance

Answer 822

shows that even in turpor thermal neutral zone is defended

Question 823

endotherm RMR, MMAR

Answer 823

higher resting metabolic rate- 5-10X ectotherms higher maximum metabolic aerobic respiration sustained activity is vastly higher, sprinting speed similar

Question 824

endotherms compared to ectotherms

Answer 824

higher aerobic scope and endurance- more red fibres in skeletal muscle; more effective oxygen delivery; turbinate bones; erect posture, parasagittal gait; increased mitochondrial SA, leakier plasma membrane

Question 825

endotherm oxygen delivery system

Answer 825

more vascularized lung, higher ventilation rate, 4-chambered heart; birds and mammals arrived at this independently (convergence)

Question 826

endotherm mitochondria and plasma membrane

Answer 826

larger SA in mitochon.- higher aerobic metabolism | plasma membrane leakier to Na, K, increased action potential, muscles, osmolarity-- higher activity level

Question 827

turbinate bones

Answer 827

thin, wafer like structures, covered in moist vascularized mucosa; cool air in-- past mucosa-- moisture lost to mucosa-- breath out-- air is warmer than trniate-- water is given back to mucosa-- helps retain water that would otherwise be lost to environment

Question 828

turnout bone problems

Answer 828

problems in dry environments (deserts)- potential for loss of water with each breath out

Question 829

euthermy evolution

Answer 829

can't tell turbinates, not preserved | bone histology can't read much into- large ranges in endo and ectotherms

Question 830

strong coronary circulation

Answer 830

heart well vascularized, more powerful, generate higher blood pressures, can deliver blood to distal body parts when animal is in upright position

Question 831

most important character in endothermy

Answer 831

it is not just one character it is a whole suite of characters

Question 832

advantages of mammalian euthermy

Answer 832

high BMR, Tb higher than Tambient, constant core Tb, high MAMR (and aerobic scope)

Question 833

which advantages were the most likely targets for selection

Answer 833

constant core Tb, high MAMR

Question 834

aerobic scope

Answer 834

The ratio of the maximal aerobic metabolic rate to the basal metabolic rate, typically in the range of 3–10; range of possible oxidative metabolism from rest to maximal exercise

Question 835

hypotheses for evolution of endothermy

Answer 835

niche expansion | maintenance of high brain T

Question 836

scenarios for evolution of mammalian euthermy

Answer 836

thermoregulation first then aerobic capacity | Aerobic capacity first

Question 837

hypotheses for thermoregulation first

Answer 837

physiological, ecological, brain size, growth of young

Question 838

hypotheses for aerobic capacity first

Answer 838

sustained activity, juvenile provision

Question 839

most likely scenario for endothermy

Answer 839

correlated progression, came about by small steps; reptilians became progressively mor mammalian, gradually accumulate synapomorphies; parallel changes in different lineages (even the ones that don't lead to mammals); integrate changes, a few at a time

Question 840

stick or grip? co-evolution of adhesive topes and claw in Anolis Lizards

Answer 840

Crandell et al., 2014; claw characters significantly different btw arboreal and non-arboreal lizards; arboreal higher and longer, decreased curvature, wider claw tip angles; toped size and claw length/height tightly correlated

Question 841

toepad

Answer 841

allows animal to move across smooth substrates with little difficulty (leaves, smooth bark); microscopic hair-like structures on ventral pad (setae); key innovation in anoles- niche expansion, radiation, diversification

Question 842

clawed vs. non-clawed animals

Answer 842

clawed can occupy larger portion of habitat

Question 843

claws interact with surface irregularities by

Answer 843

interlocking, friction interlocking: surface irreg. > claw tip diameter mechanical interlocking stronger, advantagous to decrease size of tip

Question 844

claw curvature

Answer 844

highest- climbers med- perching lowest- ground dwelling

Question 845

Nostril position in dinosaurs and other vertebrates and its significance for nasal function

Answer 845

Witmer, 2001; have enromous, complicated bony nasal apertures; fleshy nostril now thought to be rostral (forward); consequences for nasal air streaming, physiological parameters, circumolar odorants

Question 846

nasal structure roles

Answer 846

olfaction, respiration, manipulation, behavioural display, thermal physiology

Question 847

bony nostril

Answer 847

osseous nasal aperture

Question 848

studies fleshy nostril using what approach

Answer 848

extant phylogenetic bracket

Question 849

biological implications

Answer 849

tradition caudal position would be out of main airstream- important in convective heat loss, facilitated evaporative cooling, intermittent countercurrent heart exchange, heat and water balance, selective brain temperature regulation

Question 850

true navigation in birds: from quantum physics to global migration

Answer 850

Holland, 2013; birds able to return to known goal from a place they've never been; presents conflicting findings

Question 851

Type III navigational challenge

Answer 851

birds able to return to a goal after being displaced (even artificially) to an unknown area

Question 852

true navigation

Answer 852

ability of an animal to return to original location after diplacement to a site in unfamiliar territory, without access to familiar landmarks, goal emanating cues, or info about the displacement route

Question 853

migratory true navigation

Answer 853

ability of an animal to navigate to a specific breeding or wintering area following displacement

Question 854

map and compass hypothesis

Answer 854

1. determine position with respect to the goal 2. determine direction to a goal; only conducted in adult birds (experience)

Question 855

celestial cues

Answer 855

using sun, star positions; studies find consitancy with sun compass but not sun navigation

Question 856

olfactory navigation

Answer 856

olfactory deprivation disrupts return home; may associate odours with wind directions; lack of repeatability; without odours may use other cues

Question 857

anosmia

Answer 857

inability to perceive odor or a lack of functioning olfaction

Question 858

magnetic cues

Answer 858

magnetic field stronger at poles- potential to indicate latitudinal position, coarse scale; skepticism- no sense organ- earths magnetic field can prevade all tissue

Question 859

radical pair mechanism

Answer 859

electron spin states affected by strong magnetic fields- radical pair molecule- photoreceptive- perceived through the eyes- may involve ZENK gene, cluster-N, night vision

Question 860

magnetoreceptor

Answer 860

cryptochrome- blue light receptor, long-lived radical pairs

Question 861

ferrimagnetic sense

Answer 861

multi doman magnetite- no magnetization, single domain- permanent magnetic moment, super paramagnetic- fluctuating magnetic moment; bacteria contain single domain, magnetite widely present in organisms; also only found in adults; magnetic field detected by trigeminal nerve

Question 862

Brave new propagules: terrestrial embryos in anamniotic eggs

Answer 862

Martin and Carter, 2013; lots of fish and amphibians reproduce terrestrially despite absence of amniotic egg; eggs- smaller, simple chorionic membrane; disadvantage- desiccation, novel predators; arisen independently in different lineages

Question 863

anamniotic egg

Answer 863

much smaller, more dependent on environmental conditions, simple chorion membrane

Question 864

advantages of terrestrial incubation

Answer 864

higher T, higher O2, diffusion of O2 more rapid in air- avoid hypoxia, avoid aquatic predators

Question 865

dehydrated eggs

Answer 865

deformed, death, hatch early

Question 866

protection against dehydration, anamniotes

Answer 866

less aquaporin channels, amyloid fibres in the egg envelope, shape, shaded under a boulder, in a burrow, buried in damp sand

Question 867

parental care, anamniotes

Answer 867

choice of oviposition site, guarding eggs, slashing them, exchange oxygen, transport tadpoles to water

Question 868

ECH

Answer 868

environmental cued hatching

Question 869

ECHs

Answer 869

decreased O2 levels, mechanical agitation of seawater, disturbance by snakes or wasps, presence of disease

Question 870

influence on size of egg

Answer 870

yolk, offspring size, time to hatching, maternal size, habitat quality, O2 availability, duration of spawning, geographic location, parental care

Question 871

endotrophy

Answer 871

ability to metamorphose without feeding, requires a minimum egg size

Question 872

larger egg sizes provide opportunity for

Answer 872

developmental plasticity

Question 873

types of terrestrial incubation

Answer 873

Type 1: conservative constitutive, Type 2: ECH early alert, 3: cautious constitutive, 4: ECH by parental involvement, 5: ECH ready and waiting, ECH ready and progressing, 7: precocious or direct development, 8: true diapauses

Question 874

diapause

Answer 874

delay in development in response to regularly and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions, physiological state of dormancy with very specific initiating and inhibiting conditions

Question 875

propagule

Answer 875

any structure capable of being propagated or acting as an agent of reproduction

Question 876

Developmental change in the function of movement systems: transition of the pectoral fins between respiratory and locomotor roles in zebrafish

Answer 876

Hale, 2014; changes in roles of morphology between stages of life history; larvae zebrafish use pectoral fins to exchange fluid near body for cutaneous respiration; musculature and positioning of fin change

Question 877

developmental changes mediated by

Answer 877

adding cells, tissues, structures, change in body size, physics of movement, behaviour, scaling of body elements (allometry), motor control, ecological factors

Question 878

fin shape

Answer 878

high aspect ratio (wing shape)- improved cruising performance; low aspect ratio (rounded)- high-acceleration starts and maneuvers, improved hovering stability

Question 879

larval zebrafish

Answer 879

hatch 48-72hr post-fertilization, 3.1-3.5mm, yolk-stage -several days, pectoral fin bud forms ~24hr post-fertilization, 48h- fin elongate w/ skeleton

Question 880

chaotic mixing under viscous conditions

Answer 880

larvae use pectoral finds pull fluid distant from the body towards the trunk and move fluid in the boundary layer away from the side of the body to increase O2

Question 881

mutations in vhl gene

Answer 881

perceive environment as hypoxic