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Nicole's Biology > Biology 1.3 > Flashcards

Biology 1.3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Converts glucose to ATP

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2
Q

Glycolysis

A

In cytosol, no oxygen. Energy investment and energy payoff stage

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3
Q

Energy investment stage

A

2 ATP used, glucose becomes 2 molecules of 3 carbon glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (PGAL)

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4
Q

At first step of glycolysis

A

Glucose irreversibly becomes glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase using 1 ATP

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5
Q

Phosphofructokinase (PFK) in glycolysis

A

Rate limiting enzyme, determines rate of glycolysis and occurs at step 3

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6
Q

Energy payoff stage

A

4 ATP and 2 NADH generated, 2 PGAL becomes 2 pyruvate, ATP production by substrate level phosphorylaton

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7
Q

NAD+ in glycolysis

A

coenzyme that accepts protons or elections and sends them to ETC

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8
Q

Net glycolysis energy summary

A

2 ATP, 2 NADH and 2 pyruvate

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9
Q

Acetyl-CoA

A

Formed in mitochondria (eukaryotes) and cytosol (prokaryotes), no oxygen. In eukaryotes, 2 pyruvate enter mitochondria where it becomes acetyl-CoA by pyruvate dehydrogenase

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10
Q

Steps of forming Acetyl-CoA

A

First, decarboxylation occurs where 1 carbon is removed from pyruvate. Next, the new 2 carbon molecule becomes a 2 carbon acetyl group coupled with oxidation of NAD+ to NADH. Lastly, the 2 carbon acetyl group combines with coenzyme A to make acetyl-CoA.

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11
Q

Net acetyl-CoA energy summary

A

2 CO2, 2 NADH, 2 acetyl-CoA

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12
Q

Krebs/ Citric acid cycle

A

mitochondrial matrix (eukaryotes) or cytosol (prokaryotes), no oxygen. Series of oxidation reactions. Cycle occurs twice for the 2 acetyl-CoA

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13
Q

FADH2 in Krebs/citric acid cycle

A

coenzyme that accepts protons or elections and transfers them to ETC

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14
Q

First step of Krebs/citric acid cycle

A

Acetyl-CoA enters and combines with oxaloacetate to make citrate

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15
Q

Net Krebs/citric acid cycle energy summary

A

From 2 acetyl-CoA/ 1 glucose: 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 GTP, 4 CO2

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16
Q

Electron transport chain (oxidative phosphorylation)

A

Inner membrane of mitochondria (eukaryotes) or cell membrane (prokaryotes), requires oxygen

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17
Q

NADH and FADH2 in ETC

A

oxidized to NAD+ and FAD at inner mitochondrial membrane

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18
Q

Oxygen in ETC

A

Final electron acceptor, proteins and cytochromes pass electrons down ETC until it reaches oxygen

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19
Q

H+ movement in ETC

A

Energy from each step of ETC pumps H+ from matrix, across inner membrane and finally to intermembrane space

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20
Q

ATP synthase in ETC

A

H+ gradient is generated in ETC, high concentration of H+ in inter membrane space moves back into the matrix through ATP synthase, causing ATP synthase to spin, allowing ADP+Pi to generate ATP

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21
Q

Importance of oxygen in ETC

A

Oxidative phosphorylation depends on oxygen. Without oxygen, regeneration of coenzymes NAD+ and FAD cannot occur which prevents the Krebs cycle and pyruvate oxidation

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22
Q

Net of cellular respiration in eukaryotes

A

36 ATP per glucose

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23
Q

Net of cellular respiration in prokaryotes

A

38 ATP per glucose since 2 NADH are not crossed over the mitochondrial membrane

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24
Q

Mitochondria

A

Location of cellular respiration

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25
Outer mitochondrial membrane
phospholipid bilayer
26
Intermembrane space in mitochondria
Space between inner and outer mitochondrial membrane, high H+ concentration
27
Inner mitochondrial membrane
Has convolutions called cristae, location of ETC and ATP synthase
28
Mitochondrial matrix
Fluid within inner membrane, location of Krebs/Citric acid cycle and acetyl-CoA formation
29
Anaerobic respiration
Without oxygen, NADH accumulates and NAD+ does not form, stops glycolysis and may have cell death. It helps replenish NAD+ and allow for glycolysis to continue (even without oxygen), making a net of 2 ATP.
30
Alcohol fermentation
In yeast, pyruvate is decarboxylated to acetaldehyde which is then reduced to ethanol while NADH is oxidized to NAD+
31
Lactic Acid formation
In muscles, RBC, bacteria. Pyruvate reduced to lactic acid and NADH is oxidized to NAD+. In animals, lactate is brought to liver and converted back to glucose if there is enough ATP.
32
Location of glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, ETC, alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
Cytosol, mitochondrial matrix, mitochondrial cristae, cytoplasm, muscle cells
33
Reactants and products of glycolysis
Reactants: Glucose, ATP, NAD+, ADP Products: Pyruvate, ATP, NADH
34
Reactants and products of Kreb's cycle
Reactants: Acetyl-CoA, NAD+, FAD, ADP Products: CO2, NADH, FADH2, ATP
35
Reactants and products of ETC
Reactants: O2, NADH, FADH2, ADP Products: ATP, H2O, NAD+, FAD
36
Reactants and products of alcohol fermentation
Reactants: Pyruvate, NADH Products: CO2, NAD+, ethanol
37
Reactants and products of lactic acid fermentation
Reactants: Pyruvate, NADH Products: Lactate, NAD+
38
Gluconeogenesis
Metabolic pathway resulting in the creation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon structures such as lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids. Mainly occurs in liver and kidneys.
39
Liver
Only this structure can release glucose into bloodstream as a fuel source for cells because hepatocytes contain an enzyme that reverses the hexokinase reaction of glycolysis
40
Photosynthesis
Photoautotrophs convert light to chemical energy. Occurs in chloroplast in light dependent and light independent reactions/Calvin cycle.
41
Reactants and products of photosynthesis
Reactants: 6 CO2, 6 H2O, light Products: C6H12O6, 6 O2
42
Chloroplast
Used for photosynthesis, double membrane organelle
43
Outer and inner chloroplast membrane
Both are phospholipid bilayer
44
Intermembrane space in chloroplast
Between inner and outer chloroplast membrane
45
Stroma
Fluid within the inner membrane where Calvin cycle occurs
46
Thylakoid
Pancake-like dick within stroma piled in stacks called grana. Membranes of these structures have PSI and PSII where light-dependent reactions occur.
47
Thylakoid lumen
Inside thylakoid where there is a high H+ concentration
48
Light dependent reaction
Takes in H2O, makes ATP and NADPH. Thylakoid membranes have photosystems that contain pigment molecules that absorb certain wavelengths of energy as excited electrons
49
Reaction centre
Contains special chlorophyll molecules, excited electrons in pigments in photosystems re-emit absorbed energy to neighbouring pigments until it reaches this location
50
Chlorophyll A and B
Absorb green light
51
Carotenoids
Absorb red, orange or yellow light
52
PSI
Photosystem with chlorophyll molecule P700
53
PSII
Photosystem with chlorophyll molecule P680
54
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Makes ATP and NADPH, removes electrons from H2O and excites them at photosystems
55
Light at PSII
Light is absorbed and passed between pigments until P680 pigment is reached
56
2 electrons at PSII
Excited to higher energy level and passed to the primary electron acceptor where it will continue down to other proteins like ferredoxin and cytochrome while releasing energy. The energy pumps H+ from stroma to thylakoid lumen. The 2 electrons removed from P680 are replaced by electrons harvested from splitting water
57
ATP synthase in non-cyclic photophosphorylation
Generates ATP from ADP and Pi, called chemiosmosis. The high H+ concentration in the thylakoid lumen flows down the gradient in the chain to the stroma using this structure
58
NAD+ in Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
At the end of this chain, electrons are transferred to PSI which re-excites the electrons by a second round of light absorption until they are passed to this primary electron acceptor that makes NADPH
59
Cyclic photophosphorylation
Makes ATP. Instead of being accepted by NADPH, electrons are recycled back to PSII to continue to drive proton pumping and make ATP.
60
Light Independent reaction/ Calvin cycle
Takes in CO2, ATP and NADPH. Makes PGAL/G3P. Occurs 6 times to make 1 glucose, using 6 CO2. Although it is light dependent, cannot occur in the absence of light because it requires energy from ATP and NADPH generated from light-dependent reactions
61
Steps in light independent reaction/Calvin cycle
Carboxylation, reduction, regeneration, carbohydrate synthesis
62
Carboxylation
6 CO2 react with 6 RuBP to get 12 PGA by a reaction catalyzed by rubisco enzyme
63
Reduction
12 ATP and 12 NADPH convert 12 PGA to 12 PGAL
64
Regeneration
10 PGAL are converted back to 6 RuBP to allow cycle to continue
65
Carbohydrate synthesis
The remaining 2 RuBP are used to form glucose
66
Difference between C3 vs C4 and CAM plants
C3 plants do photorespiration which is a wasteful process. C4 and CAM plants have alterations to photorespiration
67
C3 Plants (Photorespiration)
Uses RuBP and O2 to make Phophosglycerate (PGA). Majority of plants. Uses rubisco to fix oxygen. The PGA product must be digested by peroxisomes in the cell. Since rubisco is not free to fix CO2, photosynthesis efficiency decreases by 25%.
68
C4 Plants
Avoids photorespiration. Uses leaf structure to separate initial CO2 fixation and Calving cycle. Found in hot, dry climates and can close their stomata to prevent escape of evaporated gaseous water
69
Mesophyll layer
First layer in C4 plants that gases enter into. It is a spongy layer for photosynthesis
70
Bundle sheath cells
The second layer in C4 plants, it is not exposed to air. Only contains CO2 in this layer, allowing Calvin cycle to occur more efficiently without the presence of oxygen.
71
CO2 entering C4 plants
This molecule reacts with PEP at the mesophyll layer to make oxaloacetate with the help of PEP carboxylase enzyme.
72
PEP carboxylase enzyme
Cannot fix O2 which allows for the bypass of photorespiration. Helps transform reaction between CO2 and PEP to make oxaloacetate.
73
Malate
Oxaloacetate is converted to this molecule. This molecule is then brought to bundle sheath cells through connecting tubes called plasmodesmata. This molecule is also converted back to CO2 and pyruvate.
74
Pyruvate in C4 plants
Re-enters mesophyll layer to make more PEP
75
CAM (Crassulacean acid metabolism) plants
Fixes CO2 with the same method as C4 plants by using malate as intermediate that is stored in vacuoles or other organelles at night. Found in desert and use the "night and day" cycle to separate the initial CO2 fixation and Calvin cycle
76
CAM plants at night
Cool temperature minimizes the risk of losing H2O(g). Stomata opens to let CO2 in
77
CAM plants during the day
Plant closes stomata to prevent water loss and no oxygen or CO2 enters. Malate is pumped into stroma to provide CO2, allowing photosynthesis to occur as normal

Nicole's Biology (31 decks)

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