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Nicole's Biology > Biology 3.7 > Flashcards

Biology 3.7 Flashcards

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1
Q

Central nervous system

A

Brain and spinal cord, brain is main control centre where there is thinking and memory, spinal cord acts as conduit for sensory info up the brain and output from the brain. Regulatory centre for stereotypical movement like walking, breathing

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2
Q

Regions of human brain

A

Frontol lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, corpus callosum, cerebellum, hypothalamus, hippocampus and medulla

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3
Q

Frontol lobe

A

Region of cerebral cortex for higher order thinking (reasoning, planning, problem solving)

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4
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Region of cerebral cortex, integrates sensory info to aid in orientation, recognition, perception

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5
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Region of cerebral cortex, visual processing

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6
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Region of cerebral cortex, processes sensory info to aid in recognition of auditory stimuli, memory and speech

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7
Q

Corpus callosum

A

Bundle of axons connecting left and right brain lobes

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8
Q

Cerebellum

A

For movement, balance and posture

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9
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Part of limbic system, produces anti-diuretic hormone, important for homeostasis, regulates thirst, hunger, temperature, autonomic nervous system and pituitary gland

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10
Q

Hippocampus

A

Part of limbic system, associated with learning and memory

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11
Q

Medulla

A

Maintains vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, etc

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12
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Connects CNS to the rest of the body. Tells CNS of any homeostatic changes in body and carries out changes from CNS. Consists of somatic and autonomic nervous system

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13
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Part of PNS. Is the direct, voluntary control of the body, including contraction of skeletal muscles

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14
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

Part of PNS. Is voluntary responses activated in response to the presence of lack of stimuli. Consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic ANS

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15
Q

Sympathetic ANS

A

“Fight or flight”. Part of ANS which is part of PNS. Activated by dangerous or exciting stimuli. Increased heart rate, blood sugar, etc

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16
Q

Parasympathetic ANS

A

“Rest and digest’. Part of ANS which is part of PNS. Activated in absence of stimuli. Conserves energy (slows heart rate), allows body to use energy on less urgent functions like digestion

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17
Q

Parts of a neuron

A

Dendrites receive input, cell body contains nucleus and organelles, axon sends nerve impulses

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18
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Activated upon detection of stimulus such as light, pressure, heat, etc

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19
Q

Association neurons (Interneurons)

A

Receive impulses from sensory neurons and relay impulses to motor neurons, can act as integrators to integrate sensory info and evaluate them for appropriate responses

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20
Q

Motor neurons (efferent)

A

Stimulate target cells called effectors to elicit a response such as muscle movement, release of gastrin in the stomach

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21
Q

Information flow

A

Information flows from dendrites to cell body (soma) to axon. It is unidirectional. Neurons receive stimulatory and inhibitory inputs from other neurons via dendrites, soma and axon. If neuron is stimulated, action potential is stimulated which propagates until the pre-synaptic axon terminal is reached. Action potential will be converted to chemical signal that will be detected by post-synaptic membrane on the dendrites of the next neuron

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22
Q

Electrical property of neurons

A

Membrane potential at rest is -70 mV and this is due to:

  • concentration gradients of physiological ions
  • selective membrane permeability to K+ at rest
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23
Q

Concentration gradients of physiological ions

A

High concentration of Na+ extracellularly, higher concentration of K+ and negatively charged particles intracellularly, thus intracellular environment is more negative. Sodium-potassium pump maintains concentration gradient of Na+ and K+ by using ATP to pump ions across concentration gradient

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24
Q

Selective membrane permeability to K+ at rest

A

Since concentration of K+ is higher intracellularly, ions freely flow into and out of the cell while negative ions remain intracellular

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25
Action potential
Electrical impulses send info between neurons. Depolarization in membrane potential, followed by repolarization
26
Depolarization
increase in membrane potential
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Repolarization
decrease in membrane potential
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Action potential process part 1/4
Depolarization. When cell of resting neuron receives stimulus, axon will open Na+ channels to allow influx of positive Na+ ions down the concentration gradient. Action potential is only propagated down the axon if action potential threshold is reached, which allows more Na+ gates to open, results in complete depolarization of +30 mV
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Action potential process part 2/4
Repolarization. K+ channels open at delay, outflux of K+ ions. Na+ channels close and inactivate.
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Action potential process part 3/4
Hyperpolarization. K+ channels close at delay, K+ ions diffuse out even after membrane is at resting potential, causing neuron to be hyper polarized to -80 mV
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Action potential process part 4/4
Refractory Period. Sodium-potassium pumps pump ions to respective sides, this particular axon region can no longer respond to stimuli and action potential must travel unidirectionally
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Myelination and saltatory conduction
Increase speed of signal propagation in axons by increasing axonal diameter and axon insulation with myelin
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Increasing axonal diameter
Used by invertebrates for increasing speed of signal propagation. Propagation rate is proportional to axon diameter
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Axon insulation with myelin
Used by vertebrates for increasing speed of signal propagation. Myelin sheath wraps around axon and is made out of series of Schwann cells in PNS or oligodendrocytes in CNS. Myelin is interrupted by gaps called Nodes of Ranvier that help propagate the action potential in a process called saltatory conduction. Myelin helps depolarization spread a further distance, but, the signal will fade until it reaches the Node of Ranvier. A new influx of sodium (charge) will provide re-boost to the signal to allow it to propagate to the next myelin, allowing action potential to jump from node to node
35
The synapse
Communication portal between 2 neurons containing presynaptic axon terminal, synaptic cleft and postsynaptic membrane. Transmission usually chemical but sometimes electrical (ex. heart). Consists of axodendritic, axosomatic and axoaxonic.
36
Axodendritic
Synapse between axon (presynaptic) and dendrite (postsynaptic). Divided into: - Spine synapse: Presynaptic terminal makes synapse on protrusions of the dendrite called spines (often excitatory, in the brain) - Shaft synapse: Synapse on dendritic spaces between spines (inhibitory)
37
Axosomatic
Synapse between axon (presynaptic) and soma/cell body (postsynaptic)
38
Axoaxonic
Synapse between two axons
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Chemical synaptic transmission part 1/6
Action potential reaches presynaptic cleft at the axon terminal
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Chemical synaptic transmission part 2/6
Opening of Ca2+ channels: causes rapid influx of Ca2+ that is localized to the axon terminal
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Chemical synaptic transmission part 3/6
Synaptic vesicle fusion: In axon terminal, neuron stores neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles. Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane, releasing the encapsulated neurotransmitter to synaptic cleft
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Chemical synaptic transmission part 4/6
Neurotransmitters interact with postsynaptic receptors on the postsynaptic membrane: Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft and reaches postsynaptic membrane where it binds to neurotransmitter specific receptors to generate excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potential
43
Chemical synaptic transmission part 5/6
Postsynaptic membrane is excited or inhibited: The identity of the neurotransmitter and its receptor determines whether the response is excitatory of inhibitory. Consists of excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). The overall response is the sum of EPSP and IPSP called integration.
44
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
Opens Na+ channels to induce dendrite depolarization to make action potential in postsynaptic neuron
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
Opens K+ channels to induce dendrite hyperpolarization to make it difficult for postsynaptic neuron to generate action potential
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Chemical synaptic transmission part 6/6
Neurotransmitter is degraded by enzymes in synaptic cleft OR taken back up by the presynaptic neuron for "recycling"
47
Common neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA)
48
Acetylcholine
Common neurotransmitter. Common in junctions between neurons and muscle cells, excitatory at neuromuscular junctions and stimulates muscle contraction, but inhibitory at other junctions
49
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin
Common neurotransmitter. Amino acid derivatives. Secreted between neurons in the CNS
50
Gamma amino-butyric acid (GABA)
Common neurotransmitter. Inhibitory, found in brain
51
Anatomy of eye, in the order of light passage
Cornea, aqueous humour, pupil, lens, vitreous humour, retina
52
Cornea
Clear, protective covering, refracts light
53
Aqueous humour
Clear fluid encapsulated by cornea found in anterior chamber
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Pupil
Allows light to enter, diameter is controlled by the pigmented iris muscle
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Lens
Clear, flexible, controlled by ciliary muscles to focus light on the retina
56
Vitreous humour
Clear, jelly-like, maintains eyeshape and optical properties
57
Retina
Back wall of eye, has light sensitive cells. - Cones: for vision in high-intensity illumination, for colour. Fovea is a region with high density of cones for high acuity vision - Rods: For low- intensity illumination at night, no colour
58
Light detection
Light-sensitive cells constantly fire action potentials in the absence of light. When light reaches a rod call, the pigment rhodopsin is struck by photons which hyperpolarizes the neuron, ceasing action potential induction. Photosensitive cells synapse on bipolar cells which detect the lack of action potential, causing them to relay the signal to ganglion cells. Axon of ganglion cells bundle to form the optic nerve to relay visual info to the brain. Where optic nerve exits the eye is the blind spot because there are no photosensitive cells
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Hyperopia
farsightedness
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Myopia
Nearsightedness
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Astigmatism
Irregularly shaped cornea
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Cataracts
Lens become opaque, preventing light entry
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Glaucoma
Blocked outflow of aqueous humour increases pressure in eye
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Defect in rods
Unables you to see in dim light
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Parts of the human ear
Outer ear, middle ear, inner ear
66
Outer ear
Consists of auricle/pinna and auditory canal
67
Auricle/pinna
Part of outer ear. Helps localize sound into external auditory canal
68
Auditory canal
Part of outer ear. Directs sound towards middle ear
69
Middle ear
Amplifies sound. Consists of tympanic membrane (eardrum) and ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
70
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Part of middle ear. Vibrates at same frequency as incoming sound waves
71
Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
Part of middle ear. Bones connected to eardrum and vestibular membrane of cochlea, converts sound waves to mechanical oscillations
72
Inner ear
Consists of cochlea and semicircular canals
73
Cochlea
Part of inner ear. Fluid-filled tubular structure with hair cells. Mechanical oscillations from ossicles on the vestibular membrane causes cochlear fluid to move. Organ of Corti, which is specialized hair cells, detect the waves and transduce stimuli into a neural signal
74
Semicircular canals
Part of inner ear. Fluid-filled tubular structure lined with hair cells. Detect motion, for balance and spatial awareness. Motion of head moves the fluid and hair cells which allow the brain to receive orientation and motion information.

Nicole's Biology (31 decks)

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